Spamming
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about unsolicited or undesirable electronic messages. For the food, see Spam (food). For information specific to email, see Email spam. For other uses, see Spam (disambiguation).
An email box folder littered with spam messages
Electronic spamming is the use of electronic messaging systems to send unsolicited messages (spam), especially advertising, as well as sending messages repeatedly on the same site. While the most widely recognized form of spam is email spam, the term is applied to similar abuses in other media: instant messaging spam, Usenet newsgroup spam, Web search engine spam, spam in blogs, wiki spam, online classified ads spam, mobile phone messaging spam, Internet forum spam, junk fax transmissions, social spam, spam mobile apps,[1] television advertising and file sharing spam. It is named after Spam, a luncheon meat, by way of a Monty Python sketch about a menu that includes Spam in every dish.[2] The food is stereotypically disliked/unwanted, so the word came to be transferred by analogy.
Spamming remains economically viable because advertisers have no operating costs beyond the management of their mailing lists, servers, infrastructures, IP ranges, and domain names, and it is difficult to hold senders accountable for their mass mailings. Because the barrier to entry is so low, spammers are numerous, and the volume of unsolicited mail has become very high. In the year 2011, the estimated figure for spam messages is around seven trillion. The costs, such as lost productivity and fraud, are borne by the public and by Internet service providers, which have been forced to add extra capacity to cope with the deluge. Spamming has been the subject of legislation in many jurisdictions.[3]
A person who creates electronic spam is called a spammer.[4]
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Pre-Internet
2.2 History
3 In different media
3.1 Email
3.2 Instant messaging
3.3 Newsgroup and forum
3.4 Mobile phone
3.5 Social networking spam
3.6 Social spam
3.7 Online game messaging
3.8 Spam targeting search engines (spamdexing)
3.9 Blog, wiki, and guestbook
3.10 Spam targeting video sharing sites
3.11 SPIT
3.12 Academic search
4 Noncommercial forms
5 Geographical origins
6 Trademark issues
7 Cost-benefit analyses
7.1 General costs
8 In crime
9 Political issues
10 Court cases
10.1 United States
10.2 United Kingdom
10.3 New Zealand
10.4 Bulgaria
11 Newsgroups
12 Psychology
13 See also
14 References
14.1 Notes
14.2 Sources
15 Further reading
16 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term spam is derived from the 1970 Spam sketch of the BBC television comedy series Monty Python's Flying Circus.[5] The sketch is set in a cafe where nearly every item on the menu includes Spam canned luncheon meat. As the waiter recites the Spam-filled menu, a chorus of Viking patrons drowns out all conversations with a song repeating "Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam… lovely Spam! wonderful Spam!", hence spamming the dialogue.[6] The excessive amount of Spam mentioned references the preponderance of it and other imported canned meat products in the United Kingdom after World War II, as the country struggled to rebuild its agricultural base. Spam captured a large slice of the British market within the lower classes, and became a byword among British children of the 1960s for low-grade fodder due to its commonality, monotonous taste and cheap price, leading to the humour of the Python sketch.[citation needed]
In the 1980s the term was adopted to describe certain abusive users who frequented BBSs and MUDs, who would repeat "Spam" a huge number of times to scroll other users' text off the screen.[7] In early chat rooms services like PeopleLink and the early days of Online America (later known as America Online or AOL), they actually flooded the screen with quotes from the Monty Python Spam sketch.[citation needed] With internet connections over phone lines, typically running at 1200 or even 300 bit/s, it could take an enormous amount of time for a spammy logo, drawn in ASCII art to scroll to completion on a viewer's terminal. Sending an irritating, large, meaningless block of text in this way was called spamming. This was used as a tactic by insiders of a group that wanted to drive newcomers out of the room so the usual conversation could continue. It was also used to prevent members of rival groups from chatting—for instance, Star Wars fans often invaded Star Trek chat rooms, filling the space with blocks of text until the Star Trek fans left.[8] This act, previously called flooding or trashing, came to be known as spamming.[9] The term was soon applied to a large amount of text broadcast by many users.
It later came to be used on Usenet to mean excessive multiple posting—the repeated posting of the same message. The unwanted message would appear in many, if not all newsgroups, just as Spam appeared in nearly all the menu items in the Monty Python sketch. The first usage of this sense was by Joel Furr[10] in the aftermath of the ARMM incident of March 31, 1993, in which a piece of experimental software released dozens of recursive messages onto the news.admin.policy newsgroup.[11] This use had also become established—to spam Usenet was flooding newsgroups with junk messages. The word was also attributed to the flood of "Make Money Fast" messages that clogged many newsgroups during the 1990s.[citation needed] In 1998, the New Oxford Dictionary of English, which had previously only defined "spam" in relation to the trademarked food product, added a second definition to its entry for "spam": "Irrelevant or inappropriate messages sent on the Internet to a large number of newsgroups or users."
There was also an effort to differentiate between types of newsgroup spam. Messages that were crossposted to too many newsgroups at once – as opposed to those that were posted too frequently – were called velveeta (after a cheese product). But this term didn't persist.[12]
History[edit]
Pre-Internet[edit]
In the late 19th Century Western Union allowed telegraphic messages on its network to be sent to multiple destinations. The first recorded instance of a mass unsolicited commercial telegram is from May 1864, when some British politicians received an unsolicited telegram advertising a dentistry shop.[13]
History[edit]
Earliest documented spam (although the term had not yet been coined[14]) was a message advertising the availability of a new model of Digital Equipment Corporation computers sent by Gary Thuerk to 393 recipients on ARPANET in 1978.[10] Rather than send a separate message to each person, which was the standard practice at the time, he had an assistant, Carl Gartley, write a single mass email. Reaction from the net community was fiercely negative, but the spam did generate some sales.[15][16]
Spamming had been practiced as a prank by participants in multi-user dungeon games, to fill their rivals' accounts with unwanted electronic junk.[16] The first known electronic chain letter, titled Make Money Fast, was released in 1988.
The first major commercial spam incident started on March 5, 1994, when a husband and wife team of lawyers, Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, began using bulk Usenet posting to advertise immigration law services. The incident was commonly termed the "Green Card spam", after the subject line of the postings. Defiant in the face of widespread condemnation, the attorneys claimed their detractors were hypocrites or "zealouts", claimed they had a free speech right to send unwanted commercial messages, and labeled their opponents "anti-commerce radicals." The couple wrote a controversial book entitled How to Make a Fortune on the Information Superhighway.[16]
Within a few years, the focus of spamming (and anti-spam efforts) moved chiefly to email, where it remains today.[7] Arguably, the aggressive email spamming by a number of high-profile spammers such as Sanford Wallace of Cyber Promotions in the mid-to-late 1990s contributed to making spam predominantly an email phenomenon in the public mind.[citation needed] By 2009, the majority of spam sent around the World was in the English language; spammers began using automatic translation services to send spam in other languages.[17] In 2014, the Swiss artist M.M. Keupp reproduced original spam letters in his artist's book spam, sex, & random thoughts, interpreting them as readymades."[3]."
In different media[edit]
Email[edit]
Main article: Email spam
Email spam, also known as unsolicited bulk email (UBE), junk mail, or unsolicited commercial email (UCE), is the practice of sending unwanted email messages, frequently with commercial content, in large quantities to an indiscriminate set of recipients. Spam in email started to become a problem when the Internet was opened up to the general public in the mid-1990s. It grew exponentially over the following years, and today composes some 80 to 85 percent of all the e-mail in the World, by a "conservative estimate".[18] Pressure to make email spam illegal has been successful in some jurisdictions, but less so in others. The efforts taken by governing bodies, security systems and email service providers seem to be helping to reduce the onslaught of email spam. According to "2014 Internet Security Threat Report, Volume 19" published by Symantec Corporation, spam volume dropped to 66% of all email traffic.[19] Spammers take advantage of this fact,[clarification needed] and frequently outsource parts of their operations to countries where spamming will not get them into legal trouble.
Increasingly, e-mail spam today is sent via "zombie networks", networks of virus- or worm-infected personal computers in homes and offices around the globe. Many modern worms install a backdoor that allows the spammer to access the computer and use it for malicious purposes. This complicates attempts to control the spread of spam, as in many cases the spam does not obviously originate from the spammer. In November 2008 an ISP, McColo, which was providing service to botnet operators, was depeered and spam dropped 50 to 75 percent Internet-wide. At the same time, it is becoming clear that malware authors, spammers, and phishers are learning from each other, and possibly forming various kinds of partnerships.
An industry of email address harvesting is dedicated to collecting email addresses and selling compiled databases.[20] Some of these address-harvesting approaches rely on users not reading the fine print of agreements, resulting in their agreeing to send messages indiscriminately to their contacts. This is a common approach in social networking spam such as that generated by the social networking site Quechup.[21]
Instant messaging[edit]
Main article: Messaging spam
Instant messaging spam makes use of instant messaging systems. Although less ubiquitous than its e-mail counterpart, according to a report from Ferris Research, 500 million spam IMs were sent in 2003, twice the level of 2002. As instant messaging tends to not be blocked by firewalls, it is an especially useful channel for spammers. This is very common on many instant messaging systems such as Skype.
Newsgroup and forum[edit]
Main article: Newsgroup spam
Newsgroup spam is a type of spam where the targets are Usenet newsgroups. Spamming of Usenet newsgroups actually pre-dates e-mail spam. Usenet convention defines spamming as excessive multiple posting, that is, the repeated posting of a message (or substantially similar messages). The prevalence of Usenet spam led to the development of the Breidbart Index as an objective measure of a message's "spamminess".
Main article: Forum spam
Forum spam is the creation of advertising messages on Internet forums. It is generally done by automated spambots. Most forum spam consists of links to external sites, with the dual goals of increasing search engine visibility in highly competitive areas such as weight loss, pharmaceuticals, gambling, pornography, real estate or loans, and generating more traffic for these commercial websites. Some of these links contain code to track the spambot's identity; if a sale goes through, the spammer behind the spambot works on commission.
Mobile phone[edit]
Main article: Mobile phone spam
Mobile phone spam is directed at the text messaging service of a mobile phone. This can be especially irritating to customers not only for the inconvenience, but also because of the fee they may be charged per text message received in some markets. The term "SpaSMS" was coined at the adnews website Adland in 2000 to describe spam SMS. To comply with CAN-SPAM regulations in the US, SMS messages now must provide options of HELP and STOP, the latter to end communication with the advertiser via SMS altogether.
Despite the high number of phone users, there has not been so much phone spam, because there is a charge for sending SMS, and installing trojans into other's phones that send spam (common for e-mail spam) is hard because applications normally must be downloaded from a central database.
Social networking spam[edit]
Main article: Social networking spam
Facebook and Twitter are not immune to messages containing spam links. Most insidiously, spammers hack into accounts and send false links under the guise of a user's trusted contacts such as friends and family.[22] As for Twitter, spammers gain credibility by following verified accounts such as that of Lady Gaga; when that account owner follows the spammer back, it legitimizes the spammer and allows him or her to proliferate.[23] Twitter has studied what interest structures allow their users to receive interesting tweets and avoid spam, despite the site using the broadcast model, in which all tweets from a user are broadcast to all followers of the user.[24]
Social spam[edit]
Spreading beyond the centrally managed social networking platforms, user-generated content increasingly appears on business, government, and nonprofit websites worldwide. Fake accounts and comments planted by computers programmed to issue social spam can infiltrate these websites.[25] Well-meaning and malicious human users can break websites' policies by submitting profanity,[26] insults,[27] hate speech, and violent messages.
Online game messaging[edit]
Many online games allow players to contact each other via player-to-player messaging, chat rooms, or public discussion areas. What qualifies as spam varies from game to game, but usually this term applies to all forms of message flooding, violating the terms of service contract for the website. This is particularly common in MMORPGs where the spammers are trying to sell game-related "items" for real-world money, chiefly among them being in-game currency. In gameplay terms, spamming also refers to the repetitive use of the same combat skills as a cheap tactic (e.g. "to defeat the blue dragon, just spam fireballs").
Spam targeting search engines (spamdexing)[edit]
Main article: Spamdexing
Spamdexing (a portmanteau of spamming and indexing) refers to a practice on the World Wide Web of modifying HTML pages to increase their chances of high placement on search engine relevancy lists. These sites use "black-hat" search engine optimization techniques to deliberately manipulate their rank in search engines. Many modern search engines modified their search algorithms to try to exclude web pages utilizing spamdexing tactics. For example, the search bots will detect repeated keywords as spamming by using a grammar analysis. If a website owner is found to have spammed the webpage to falsely increase its page rank, the website may be penalized by search engines.
Blog, wiki, and guestbook[edit]
Main article: Spam in blogs
Blog spam, or "blam" for short, is spamming on weblogs. In 2003, this type of spam took advantage of the open nature of comments in the blogging software Movable Type by repeatedly placing comments to various blog posts that provided nothing more than a link to the spammer's commercial web site.[28] Similar attacks are often performed against wikis and guestbooks, both of which accept user contributions. Another possible form of spam in blogs is the spamming of a certain tag on websites such as Tumblr.
Spam targeting video sharing sites[edit]
Screenshot from a spam video on YouTube claiming that the film in question has been deleted from the site, and can only be accessed on the link posted by the spambot in the video description (if the video were actually removed by YouTube, the description would be inaccessible, and the deletion notification would look different).
Video sharing sites, such as YouTube, are now frequently targeted by spammers. The most common technique involves spammers (or spambots) posting links to sites, most likely pornographic or dealing with online dating, on the comments section of random videos or user profiles. With the addition of a "thumbs up/thumbs down" feature, groups of spambots may constantly "thumbs up" a comment, getting it into the top comments section and making the message more visible. Another frequently used technique is using bots to post messages on random users' profiles to a spam account's channel page, along with enticing text and images, usually of a sexually suggestive nature. These pages may include their own or other users' videos, again often suggestive. The main purpose of these accounts is to draw people to the link in the home page section of their profile. YouTube has blocked the posting of such links. In addition, YouTube has implemented a CAPTCHA system that makes rapid posting of repeated comments much more difficult than before, because of abuse in the past by mass spammers who would flood individuals' profiles with thousands of repetitive comments.
Yet another kind is actual video spam, giving the uploaded movie a name and description with a popular figure or event that is likely to draw attention, or within the video has a certain image timed to come up as the video's thumbnail image to mislead the viewer, such as a still image from a feature film, purporting to be a part-by-part piece of a movie being pirated, e.g. Big Buck Bunny Full Movie Online - Part 1/10 HD, a link to a supposed keygen, trainer, ISO file for a video game, or something similar. The actual content of the video ends up being totally unrelated, a Rickroll, offensive, or simply on-screen text of a link to the site being promoted.[29] In some cases, the link in question may lead to an online survey site, a password-protected archive file with instructions leading to the aforementioned survey (though the survey, and the archive file itself, is worthless and doesn't contain the file in question at all), or in extreme cases, malware.[30] Others may upload videos presented in an infomercial-like format selling their product which feature actors and paid testimonials, though the promoted product or service is of dubious quality and would likely not pass the scrutiny of a standards and practices department at a television station or cable network.
SPIT[edit]
SPIT (SPam over Internet Telephony) is VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) spam, usually using SIP (Session Initiation Protocol). This is nearly identical to telemarketing calls over traditional phone lines. When the user chooses to receive the spam call, a pre-recorded spam message or advertisement is usually played back. This is generally easier for the spammer as VoIP services are cheap and easy to anonymize over the Internet, and there are many options for sending mass amounts of calls from a single location. Accounts or IP addresses being used for VoIP spam can usually be identified by a large number of outgoing calls, low call completion and short call length.
Academic search[edit]
Academic search engines enable researchers to find academic literature and are used to obtain citation data for calculating performance metrics such as the H-index and impact factor. Researchers from the University of California, Berkeley and OvGU demonstrated that most (web-based) academic search engines, especially Google Scholar, are not capable of identifying spam attacks.[31] The researchers manipulated the citation counts of articles, and managed to make Google Scholar index complete fake articles, some containing advertising.[31]
Noncommercial forms[edit]
E-mail and other forms of spamming have been used for purposes other than advertisements. Many early Usenet spams were religious or political. Serdar Argic, for instance, spammed Usenet with historical revisionist screeds. A number of evangelists have spammed Usenet and e-mail media with preaching messages. A growing number of criminals are also using spam to perpetrate various sorts of fraud.[32]
Geographical origins[edit]
In 2011 the origins of spam were analyzed by Cisco Systems. They provided a report that shows spam volume originating from countries worldwide.[33]
Rank Country Spam
volume(%)
1 India 13.7
2 Russia 9.0
3 Vietnam 7.9
4
(tie) South Korea 6.0
Indonesia 6.0
6 China 4.7
7 Brazil 4.5
8 United States 3.2
Trademark issues[edit]
Hormel Foods Corporation, the maker of SPAM luncheon meat, does not object to the Internet use of the term "spamming". However, they did ask that the capitalized word "Spam" be reserved to refer to their product and trademark.[34] By and large, this request is obeyed in forums that discuss spam. In Hormel Foods v. SpamArrest, Hormel attempted to assert its trademark rights against SpamArrest, a software company, from using the mark "spam", since Hormel owns the trademark. In a dilution claim, Hormel argued that SpamArrest's use of the term "spam" had endangered and damaged "substantial goodwill and good reputation" in connection with its trademarked lunch meat and related products. Hormel also asserted that SpamArrest's name so closely resembles its luncheon meat that the public might become confused, or might think that Hormel endorses SpamArrest's products.
Hormel did not prevail. Attorney Derek Newman responded on behalf of SpamArrest: "Spam has become ubiquitous throughout the [w]orld to describe unsolicited commercial email. No company can claim trademark rights on a generic term." Hormel stated on its website: "Ultimately, we are trying to avoid the day when the consuming public asks, 'Why would Hormel Foods name its product after junk email?'".[35]
Hormel also made two attempts that were dismissed in 2005 to revoke the marks "SPAMBUSTER"[36] and Spam Cube.[37] Hormel's corporate attorney Melanie J. Neumann also sent SpamCop's Julian Haight a letter on August 27, 1999 requesting that he delete an objectionable image (a can of Hormel's Spam luncheon meat product in a trash can), change references to UCE spam to all lower case letters, and confirm his agreement to do so.[38]
Cost-benefit analyses[edit]
The European Union's Internal Market Commission estimated in 2001 that "junk email" cost Internet users €10 billion per year worldwide.[39] The California legislature found that spam cost United States organizations alone more than $13 billion in 2007, including lost productivity and the additional equipment, software, and manpower needed to combat the problem.[40] Spam's direct effects include the consumption of computer and network resources, and the cost in human time and attention of dismissing unwanted messages.[41] Large companies who are frequent spam targets utilize numerous techniques to detect and prevent spam.[42]
In addition, spam has costs stemming from the kinds of spam messages sent, from the ways spammers send them, and from the arms race between spammers and those who try to stop or control spam. In addition, there are the opportunity cost of those who forgo the use of spam-afflicted systems. There are the direct costs, as well as the indirect costs borne by the victims—both those related to the spamming itself, and to other crimes that usually accompany it, such as financial theft, identity theft, data and intellectual property theft, virus and other malware infection, child pornography, fraud, and deceptive marketing.
The cost to providers of search engines is not insignificant: "The secondary consequence of spamming is that search engine indexes are inundated with useless pages, increasing the cost of each processed query".[4] The methods of spammers are likewise costly. Because spamming contravenes the vast majority of ISPs' acceptable-use policies, most spammers have for many years gone to some trouble to conceal the origins of their spam. Email, Usenet, and instant-message spam are often sent through insecure proxy servers belonging to unwilling third parties. Spammers frequently use false names, addresses, phone numbers, and other contact information to set up "disposable" accounts at various Internet service providers. In some cases, they have used falsified or stolen credit card numbers to pay for these accounts. This allows them to quickly move from one account to the next as each one is discovered and shut down by the host ISPs.
The costs of spam also include the collateral costs of the struggle between spammers and the administrators and users of the media threatened by spamming.[43] Many users are bothered by spam because it impinges upon the amount of time they spend reading their email. Many also find the content of spam frequently offensive, in that pornography is one of the most frequently advertised products. Spammers send their spam largely indiscriminately, so pornographic ads may show up in a work place email inbox—or a child's, the latter of which is illegal in many jurisdictions. Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in spam advertising websites that contain child pornography.[citation needed]
Some spammers argue that most of these costs could potentially be alleviated by having spammers reimburse ISPs and persons for their material.[citation needed] There are three problems with this logic: first, the rate of reimbursement they could credibly budget is not nearly high enough to pay the direct costs[citation needed], second, the human cost (lost mail, lost time, and lost opportunities) is basically unrecoverable, and third, spammers often use stolen bank accounts and credit cards to finance their operations, and would conceivably do so to pay off any fines imposed.
Email spam exemplifies a tragedy of the commons: spammers use resources (both physical and human), without bearing the entire cost of those resources. In fact, spammers commonly do not bear the cost at all. This raises the costs for everyone. In some ways spam is even a potential threat to the entire email system, as operated in the past. Since email is so cheap to send, a tiny number of spammers can saturate the Internet with junk mail. Although only a tiny percentage of their targets are motivated to purchase their products (or fall victim to their scams), the low cost may provide a sufficient conversion rate to keep the spamming alive. Furthermore, even though spam appears not to be economically viable as a way for a reputable company to do business, it suffices for professional spammers to convince a tiny proportion of gullible advertisers that it is viable for those spammers to stay in business. Finally, new spammers go into business every day, and the low costs allow a single spammer to do a lot of harm before finally realizing that the business is not profitable.
Some companies and groups "rank" spammers; spammers who make the news are sometimes referred to by these rankings.[44][45] The secretive nature of spamming operations makes it difficult to determine how prolific an individual spammer is, thus making the spammer hard to track, block or avoid. Also, spammers may target different networks to different extents, depending on how successful they are at attacking the target. Thus considerable resources are employed to actually measure the amount of spam generated by a single person or group. For example, victims that use common anti-spam hardware, software or services provide opportunities for such tracking. Nevertheless, such rankings should be taken with a grain of salt.
General costs[edit]
In all cases listed above, including both commercial and non-commercial, "spam happens" because of a positive cost-benefit analysis result; if the cost to recipients is excluded as an externality the spammer can avoid paying.
Cost is the combination of
Overhead: The costs and overhead of electronic spamming include bandwidth, developing or acquiring an email/wiki/blog spam tool, taking over or acquiring a host/zombie, etc.
Transaction cost: The incremental cost of contacting each additional recipient once a method of spamming is constructed, multiplied by the number of recipients (see CAPTCHA as a method of increasing transaction costs).
Risks: Chance and severity of legal and/or public reactions, including damages and punitive damages.
Damage: Impact on the community and/or communication channels being spammed (see Newsgroup spam).
Benefit is the total expected profit from spam, which may include any combination of the commercial and non-commercial reasons listed above. It is normally linear, based on the incremental benefit of reaching each additional spam recipient, combined with the conversion rate. The conversion rate for botnet-generated spam has recently been measured to be around one in 12,000,000 for pharmaceutical spam and one in 200,000 for infection sites as used by the Storm botnet.[46] The authors of the study calculating those conversion rates noted, "After 26 days, and almost 350 million e-mail messages, only 28 sales resulted."
In crime[edit]
Spam can be used to spread computer viruses, trojan horses or other malicious software. The objective may be identity theft, or worse (e.g., advance fee fraud). Some spam attempts to capitalize on human greed, while some attempts to take advantage of the victims' inexperience with computer technology to trick them (e.g., phishing). On May 31, 2007, one of the world's most prolific spammers, Robert Alan Soloway, was arrested by US authorities.[47] Described as one of the top ten spammers in the world, Soloway was charged with 35 criminal counts, including mail fraud, wire fraud, e-mail fraud, aggravated identity theft, and money laundering.[47] Prosecutors allege that Soloway used millions of "zombie" computers to distribute spam during 2003.[48] This is the first case in which US prosecutors used identity theft laws to prosecute a spammer for taking over someone else's Internet domain name.[citation needed]
In an attempt to assess potential legal and technical strategies for stopping illegal spam, a study from the University of California, San Diego, and the University of California, Berkeley, "Click Trajectories: End-to-End Analysis of the Spam Value Chain", cataloged three months of online spam data and researched website naming and hosting infrastructures. The study concluded that: 1) half of all spam programs have their domains and servers distributed over just eight percent or fewer of the total available hosting registrars and autonomous systems, with 80 percent of spam programs overall being distributed over just 20 percent of all registrars and autonomous systems; 2) of the 76 purchases for which the researchers received transaction information, there were only 13 distinct banks acting as credit card acquirers and only three banks provided the payment servicing for 95 percent of the spam-advertised goods in the study; and, 3) a "financial blacklist" of banking entities that do business with spammers would dramatically reduce monetization of unwanted e-mails. Moreover, this blacklist could be updated far more rapidly than spammers could acquire new banking resources, an asymmetry favoring anti-spam efforts.[49]
Political issues[edit]
Spamming remains a hot discussion topic. In 2004, the seized Porsche of an indicted spammer was advertised on the Internet;[50] this revealed the extent of the financial rewards available to those who are willing to commit duplicitous acts online. However, some of the possible means used to stop spamming may lead to other side effects, such as increased government control over the Internet, loss of privacy, barriers to free expression, and the commercialization of e-mail.[citation needed]
One of the chief values favored by many long-time Internet users and experts, as well as by many members of the public, is the free exchange of ideas. Many have valued the relative anarchy of the Internet, and bridle at the idea of restrictions placed upon it.[citation needed] A common refrain from spam-fighters is that spamming itself abridges the historical freedom of the Internet, by attempting to force users to carry the costs of material that they would not choose.[citation needed]
An ongoing concern expressed by parties such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the American Civil Liberties Union has to do with so-called "stealth blocking", a term for ISPs employing aggressive spam blocking without their users' knowledge. These groups' concern is that ISPs or technicians seeking to reduce spam-related costs may select tools that (either through error or design) also block non-spam e-mail from sites seen as "spam-friendly". Spam Prevention Early Warning System (SPEWS) is a common target of these criticisms. Few object to the existence of these tools; it is their use in filtering the mail of users who are not informed of their use that draws fire.[citation needed]
Some see spam-blocking tools as a threat to free expression—and laws against spamming as an untoward precedent for regulation or taxation of e-mail and the Internet at large. Even though it is possible in some jurisdictions to treat some spam as unlawful merely by applying existing laws against trespass and conversion, some laws specifically targeting spam have been proposed. In 2004, United States passed the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 that provided ISPs with tools to combat spam. This act allowed Yahoo! to successfully sue Eric Head, reportedly one of the biggest spammers in the World, who settled the lawsuit for several thousand U.S. dollars in June 2004. But the law is criticized by many for not being effective enough. Indeed, the law was supported by some spammers and organizations that support spamming, and opposed by many in the anti-spam community. Examples of effective anti-abuse laws that respect free speech rights include those in the U.S. against unsolicited faxes and phone calls, and those in Australia and a few U.S. states against spam.[citation needed]
In November 2004, Lycos Europe released a screen saver called make LOVE not SPAM that made Distributed Denial of Service attacks on the spammers themselves. It met with a large amount of controversy and the initiative ended in December 2004.[51][52][53]
Anti-spam policies may also be a form of disguised censorship, a way to ban access or reference to questioning alternative forums or blogs by an institution. This form of occult censorship is mainly used by private companies when they cannot muzzle criticism by legal ways.[54]
Court cases[edit]
See also: E-mail spam legislation by country
United States[edit]
Sanford Wallace and Cyber Promotions were the target of a string of lawsuits, many of which were settled out of court, up through a 1998 Earthlink settlement[citation needed] that put Cyber Promotions out of business. Attorney Laurence Canter was disbarred by the Tennessee Supreme Court in 1997 for sending prodigious amounts of spam advertising his immigration law practice. In 2005, Jason Smathers, a former America Online employee, pleaded guilty to charges of violating the CAN-SPAM Act. In 2003, he sold a list of approximately 93 million AOL subscriber e-mail addresses to Sean Dunaway who, in turn, sold the list to spammers.[55][56]
In 2007, Robert Soloway lost a case in a federal court against the operator of a small Oklahoma-based Internet service provider who accused him of spamming. U.S. Judge Ralph G. Thompson granted a motion by plaintiff Robert Braver for a default judgment and permanent injunction against him. The judgment includes a statutory damages award of $10,075,000 under Oklahoma law.[57]
In June 2007, two men were convicted of eight counts stemming from sending millions of e-mail spam messages that included hardcore pornographic images. Jeffrey A. Kilbride, 41, of Venice, California was sentenced to six years in prison, and James R. Schaffer, 41, of Paradise Valley, Arizona, was sentenced to 63 months. In addition, the two were fined $100,000, ordered to pay $77,500 in restitution to AOL, and ordered to forfeit more than $1.1 million, the amount of illegal proceeds from their spamming operation.[58] The charges included conspiracy, fraud, money laundering, and transportation of obscene materials. The trial, which began on June 5, was the first to include charges under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, according to a release from the Department of Justice. The specific law that prosecutors used under the CAN-Spam Act was designed to crack down on the transmission of pornography in spam.[59]
In 2005, Scott J. Filary and Donald E. Townsend of Tampa, Florida were sued by Florida Attorney General Charlie Crist for violating the Florida Electronic Mail Communications Act.[60] The two spammers were required to pay $50,000 USD to cover the costs of investigation by the state of Florida, and a $1.1 million penalty if spamming were to continue, the $50,000 was not paid, or the financial statements provided were found to be inaccurate. The spamming operation was successfully shut down.[61]
Edna Fiedler, 44, of Olympia, Washington, on June 25, 2008, pleaded guilty in a Tacoma court and was sentenced to 2 years imprisonment and 5 years of supervised release or probation in an Internet $1 million "Nigerian check scam." She conspired to commit bank, wire and mail fraud, against US citizens, specifically using Internet by having had an accomplice who shipped counterfeit checks and money orders to her from Lagos, Nigeria, the previous November. Fiedler shipped out $609,000 fake check and money orders when arrested and prepared to send additional $1.1 million counterfeit materials. Also, the U.S. Postal Service recently intercepted counterfeit checks, lottery tickets and eBay overpayment schemes with a face value of $2.1 billion.[62][63]
In a 2009 opinion, Gordon v. Virtumundo, Inc., 575 F.3d 1040, the Ninth Circuit assessed the standing requirements necessary for a private plaintiff to bring a civil cause of action against spam senders under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, as well as the scope of the CAN-SPAM Act's federal preemption clause.[64]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the first successful case of its kind, Nigel Roberts from the Channel Islands won £270 against Media Logistics UK who sent junk e-mails to his personal account.[65]
In January 2007, a Sheriff Court in Scotland awarded Mr. Gordon Dick £750 (the then maximum sum that could be awarded in a Small Claim action) plus expenses of £618.66, a total of £1368.66 against Transcom Internet Services Ltd.[66] for breaching anti-spam laws.[67] Transcom had been legally represented at earlier hearings, but were not represented at the proof, so Gordon Dick got his decree by default. It is the largest amount awarded in compensation in the United Kingdom since Roberts v Media Logistics case in 2005.
Despite the statutory tort that is created by the Regulations implementing the EC Directive, few other people have followed their example. As the Courts engage in active case management, such cases would probably now be expected to be settled by mediation and payment of nominal damages.
New Zealand[edit]
In October 2008, a vast international internet spam operation run from New Zealand was cited by American authorities as one of the world’s largest, and for a time responsible for up to a third of all unwanted e-mails. In a statement the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) named Christchurch’s Lance Atkinson as one of the principals of the operation. New Zealand’s Internal Affairs announced it had lodged a $200,000 claim in the High Court against Atkinson and his brother Shane Atkinson and courier Roland Smits, after raids in Christchurch. This marked the first prosecution since the Unsolicited Electronic Messages Act (UEMA) was passed in September 2007. The FTC said it had received more than three million complaints about spam messages connected to this operation, and estimated that it may be responsible for sending billions of illegal spam messages. The US District Court froze the defendants’ assets to preserve them for consumer redress pending trial.[68] U.S. co-defendant Jody Smith forfeited more than $800,000 and faces up to five years in prison for charges to which he pleaded guilty.[69]
Bulgaria[edit]
While most countries either outlaw or at least ignore spam, Bulgaria is the first and until now[when?] only one[citation needed]to legalize it. According to the Bulgarian E-Commerce act[70] (Чл.5,6) anyone can send spam to mailboxes published as owned by a company or organization, as long as there is a "clear and straight indication that the message is unsolicited commercial e-mail" ("да осигури ясното и недвусмислено разпознаване на търговското съобщение като непоискано") in the message body.
This made lawsuits against Bulgarian ISP's and public e-mail providers with antispam policy possible, as they are obstructing legal commerce activity and thus violate Bulgarian antitrust acts. While there are no such lawsuits until now, several cases of spam obstruction are currently awaiting decision in the Bulgarian Antitrust Commission (Комисия за защита на конкуренцията) and can end with serious fines for the ISP's in question.[when?][citation needed]
The law contains other dubious provisions — for example, the creation of a nationwide public electronic register of e-mail addresses that do not want to receive spam.[71] It is usually abused as the perfect source for e-mail address harvesting, because publishing invalid or incorrect information in such a register is a criminal offense in Bulgaria.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about unsolicited or undesirable electronic messages. For the food, see Spam (food). For information specific to email, see Email spam. For other uses, see Spam (disambiguation).
An email box folder littered with spam messages
Electronic spamming is the use of electronic messaging systems to send unsolicited messages (spam), especially advertising, as well as sending messages repeatedly on the same site. While the most widely recognized form of spam is email spam, the term is applied to similar abuses in other media: instant messaging spam, Usenet newsgroup spam, Web search engine spam, spam in blogs, wiki spam, online classified ads spam, mobile phone messaging spam, Internet forum spam, junk fax transmissions, social spam, spam mobile apps,[1] television advertising and file sharing spam. It is named after Spam, a luncheon meat, by way of a Monty Python sketch about a menu that includes Spam in every dish.[2] The food is stereotypically disliked/unwanted, so the word came to be transferred by analogy.
Spamming remains economically viable because advertisers have no operating costs beyond the management of their mailing lists, servers, infrastructures, IP ranges, and domain names, and it is difficult to hold senders accountable for their mass mailings. Because the barrier to entry is so low, spammers are numerous, and the volume of unsolicited mail has become very high. In the year 2011, the estimated figure for spam messages is around seven trillion. The costs, such as lost productivity and fraud, are borne by the public and by Internet service providers, which have been forced to add extra capacity to cope with the deluge. Spamming has been the subject of legislation in many jurisdictions.[3]
A person who creates electronic spam is called a spammer.[4]
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Pre-Internet
2.2 History
3 In different media
3.1 Email
3.2 Instant messaging
3.3 Newsgroup and forum
3.4 Mobile phone
3.5 Social networking spam
3.6 Social spam
3.7 Online game messaging
3.8 Spam targeting search engines (spamdexing)
3.9 Blog, wiki, and guestbook
3.10 Spam targeting video sharing sites
3.11 SPIT
3.12 Academic search
4 Noncommercial forms
5 Geographical origins
6 Trademark issues
7 Cost-benefit analyses
7.1 General costs
8 In crime
9 Political issues
10 Court cases
10.1 United States
10.2 United Kingdom
10.3 New Zealand
10.4 Bulgaria
11 Newsgroups
12 Psychology
13 See also
14 References
14.1 Notes
14.2 Sources
15 Further reading
16 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term spam is derived from the 1970 Spam sketch of the BBC television comedy series Monty Python's Flying Circus.[5] The sketch is set in a cafe where nearly every item on the menu includes Spam canned luncheon meat. As the waiter recites the Spam-filled menu, a chorus of Viking patrons drowns out all conversations with a song repeating "Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam… lovely Spam! wonderful Spam!", hence spamming the dialogue.[6] The excessive amount of Spam mentioned references the preponderance of it and other imported canned meat products in the United Kingdom after World War II, as the country struggled to rebuild its agricultural base. Spam captured a large slice of the British market within the lower classes, and became a byword among British children of the 1960s for low-grade fodder due to its commonality, monotonous taste and cheap price, leading to the humour of the Python sketch.[citation needed]
In the 1980s the term was adopted to describe certain abusive users who frequented BBSs and MUDs, who would repeat "Spam" a huge number of times to scroll other users' text off the screen.[7] In early chat rooms services like PeopleLink and the early days of Online America (later known as America Online or AOL), they actually flooded the screen with quotes from the Monty Python Spam sketch.[citation needed] With internet connections over phone lines, typically running at 1200 or even 300 bit/s, it could take an enormous amount of time for a spammy logo, drawn in ASCII art to scroll to completion on a viewer's terminal. Sending an irritating, large, meaningless block of text in this way was called spamming. This was used as a tactic by insiders of a group that wanted to drive newcomers out of the room so the usual conversation could continue. It was also used to prevent members of rival groups from chatting—for instance, Star Wars fans often invaded Star Trek chat rooms, filling the space with blocks of text until the Star Trek fans left.[8] This act, previously called flooding or trashing, came to be known as spamming.[9] The term was soon applied to a large amount of text broadcast by many users.
It later came to be used on Usenet to mean excessive multiple posting—the repeated posting of the same message. The unwanted message would appear in many, if not all newsgroups, just as Spam appeared in nearly all the menu items in the Monty Python sketch. The first usage of this sense was by Joel Furr[10] in the aftermath of the ARMM incident of March 31, 1993, in which a piece of experimental software released dozens of recursive messages onto the news.admin.policy newsgroup.[11] This use had also become established—to spam Usenet was flooding newsgroups with junk messages. The word was also attributed to the flood of "Make Money Fast" messages that clogged many newsgroups during the 1990s.[citation needed] In 1998, the New Oxford Dictionary of English, which had previously only defined "spam" in relation to the trademarked food product, added a second definition to its entry for "spam": "Irrelevant or inappropriate messages sent on the Internet to a large number of newsgroups or users."
There was also an effort to differentiate between types of newsgroup spam. Messages that were crossposted to too many newsgroups at once – as opposed to those that were posted too frequently – were called velveeta (after a cheese product). But this term didn't persist.[12]
History[edit]
Pre-Internet[edit]
In the late 19th Century Western Union allowed telegraphic messages on its network to be sent to multiple destinations. The first recorded instance of a mass unsolicited commercial telegram is from May 1864, when some British politicians received an unsolicited telegram advertising a dentistry shop.[13]
History[edit]
Earliest documented spam (although the term had not yet been coined[14]) was a message advertising the availability of a new model of Digital Equipment Corporation computers sent by Gary Thuerk to 393 recipients on ARPANET in 1978.[10] Rather than send a separate message to each person, which was the standard practice at the time, he had an assistant, Carl Gartley, write a single mass email. Reaction from the net community was fiercely negative, but the spam did generate some sales.[15][16]
Spamming had been practiced as a prank by participants in multi-user dungeon games, to fill their rivals' accounts with unwanted electronic junk.[16] The first known electronic chain letter, titled Make Money Fast, was released in 1988.
The first major commercial spam incident started on March 5, 1994, when a husband and wife team of lawyers, Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel, began using bulk Usenet posting to advertise immigration law services. The incident was commonly termed the "Green Card spam", after the subject line of the postings. Defiant in the face of widespread condemnation, the attorneys claimed their detractors were hypocrites or "zealouts", claimed they had a free speech right to send unwanted commercial messages, and labeled their opponents "anti-commerce radicals." The couple wrote a controversial book entitled How to Make a Fortune on the Information Superhighway.[16]
Within a few years, the focus of spamming (and anti-spam efforts) moved chiefly to email, where it remains today.[7] Arguably, the aggressive email spamming by a number of high-profile spammers such as Sanford Wallace of Cyber Promotions in the mid-to-late 1990s contributed to making spam predominantly an email phenomenon in the public mind.[citation needed] By 2009, the majority of spam sent around the World was in the English language; spammers began using automatic translation services to send spam in other languages.[17] In 2014, the Swiss artist M.M. Keupp reproduced original spam letters in his artist's book spam, sex, & random thoughts, interpreting them as readymades."[3]."
In different media[edit]
Email[edit]
Main article: Email spam
Email spam, also known as unsolicited bulk email (UBE), junk mail, or unsolicited commercial email (UCE), is the practice of sending unwanted email messages, frequently with commercial content, in large quantities to an indiscriminate set of recipients. Spam in email started to become a problem when the Internet was opened up to the general public in the mid-1990s. It grew exponentially over the following years, and today composes some 80 to 85 percent of all the e-mail in the World, by a "conservative estimate".[18] Pressure to make email spam illegal has been successful in some jurisdictions, but less so in others. The efforts taken by governing bodies, security systems and email service providers seem to be helping to reduce the onslaught of email spam. According to "2014 Internet Security Threat Report, Volume 19" published by Symantec Corporation, spam volume dropped to 66% of all email traffic.[19] Spammers take advantage of this fact,[clarification needed] and frequently outsource parts of their operations to countries where spamming will not get them into legal trouble.
Increasingly, e-mail spam today is sent via "zombie networks", networks of virus- or worm-infected personal computers in homes and offices around the globe. Many modern worms install a backdoor that allows the spammer to access the computer and use it for malicious purposes. This complicates attempts to control the spread of spam, as in many cases the spam does not obviously originate from the spammer. In November 2008 an ISP, McColo, which was providing service to botnet operators, was depeered and spam dropped 50 to 75 percent Internet-wide. At the same time, it is becoming clear that malware authors, spammers, and phishers are learning from each other, and possibly forming various kinds of partnerships.
An industry of email address harvesting is dedicated to collecting email addresses and selling compiled databases.[20] Some of these address-harvesting approaches rely on users not reading the fine print of agreements, resulting in their agreeing to send messages indiscriminately to their contacts. This is a common approach in social networking spam such as that generated by the social networking site Quechup.[21]
Instant messaging[edit]
Main article: Messaging spam
Instant messaging spam makes use of instant messaging systems. Although less ubiquitous than its e-mail counterpart, according to a report from Ferris Research, 500 million spam IMs were sent in 2003, twice the level of 2002. As instant messaging tends to not be blocked by firewalls, it is an especially useful channel for spammers. This is very common on many instant messaging systems such as Skype.
Newsgroup and forum[edit]
Main article: Newsgroup spam
Newsgroup spam is a type of spam where the targets are Usenet newsgroups. Spamming of Usenet newsgroups actually pre-dates e-mail spam. Usenet convention defines spamming as excessive multiple posting, that is, the repeated posting of a message (or substantially similar messages). The prevalence of Usenet spam led to the development of the Breidbart Index as an objective measure of a message's "spamminess".
Main article: Forum spam
Forum spam is the creation of advertising messages on Internet forums. It is generally done by automated spambots. Most forum spam consists of links to external sites, with the dual goals of increasing search engine visibility in highly competitive areas such as weight loss, pharmaceuticals, gambling, pornography, real estate or loans, and generating more traffic for these commercial websites. Some of these links contain code to track the spambot's identity; if a sale goes through, the spammer behind the spambot works on commission.
Mobile phone[edit]
Main article: Mobile phone spam
Mobile phone spam is directed at the text messaging service of a mobile phone. This can be especially irritating to customers not only for the inconvenience, but also because of the fee they may be charged per text message received in some markets. The term "SpaSMS" was coined at the adnews website Adland in 2000 to describe spam SMS. To comply with CAN-SPAM regulations in the US, SMS messages now must provide options of HELP and STOP, the latter to end communication with the advertiser via SMS altogether.
Despite the high number of phone users, there has not been so much phone spam, because there is a charge for sending SMS, and installing trojans into other's phones that send spam (common for e-mail spam) is hard because applications normally must be downloaded from a central database.
Social networking spam[edit]
Main article: Social networking spam
Facebook and Twitter are not immune to messages containing spam links. Most insidiously, spammers hack into accounts and send false links under the guise of a user's trusted contacts such as friends and family.[22] As for Twitter, spammers gain credibility by following verified accounts such as that of Lady Gaga; when that account owner follows the spammer back, it legitimizes the spammer and allows him or her to proliferate.[23] Twitter has studied what interest structures allow their users to receive interesting tweets and avoid spam, despite the site using the broadcast model, in which all tweets from a user are broadcast to all followers of the user.[24]
Social spam[edit]
Spreading beyond the centrally managed social networking platforms, user-generated content increasingly appears on business, government, and nonprofit websites worldwide. Fake accounts and comments planted by computers programmed to issue social spam can infiltrate these websites.[25] Well-meaning and malicious human users can break websites' policies by submitting profanity,[26] insults,[27] hate speech, and violent messages.
Online game messaging[edit]
Many online games allow players to contact each other via player-to-player messaging, chat rooms, or public discussion areas. What qualifies as spam varies from game to game, but usually this term applies to all forms of message flooding, violating the terms of service contract for the website. This is particularly common in MMORPGs where the spammers are trying to sell game-related "items" for real-world money, chiefly among them being in-game currency. In gameplay terms, spamming also refers to the repetitive use of the same combat skills as a cheap tactic (e.g. "to defeat the blue dragon, just spam fireballs").
Spam targeting search engines (spamdexing)[edit]
Main article: Spamdexing
Spamdexing (a portmanteau of spamming and indexing) refers to a practice on the World Wide Web of modifying HTML pages to increase their chances of high placement on search engine relevancy lists. These sites use "black-hat" search engine optimization techniques to deliberately manipulate their rank in search engines. Many modern search engines modified their search algorithms to try to exclude web pages utilizing spamdexing tactics. For example, the search bots will detect repeated keywords as spamming by using a grammar analysis. If a website owner is found to have spammed the webpage to falsely increase its page rank, the website may be penalized by search engines.
Blog, wiki, and guestbook[edit]
Main article: Spam in blogs
Blog spam, or "blam" for short, is spamming on weblogs. In 2003, this type of spam took advantage of the open nature of comments in the blogging software Movable Type by repeatedly placing comments to various blog posts that provided nothing more than a link to the spammer's commercial web site.[28] Similar attacks are often performed against wikis and guestbooks, both of which accept user contributions. Another possible form of spam in blogs is the spamming of a certain tag on websites such as Tumblr.
Spam targeting video sharing sites[edit]
Screenshot from a spam video on YouTube claiming that the film in question has been deleted from the site, and can only be accessed on the link posted by the spambot in the video description (if the video were actually removed by YouTube, the description would be inaccessible, and the deletion notification would look different).
Video sharing sites, such as YouTube, are now frequently targeted by spammers. The most common technique involves spammers (or spambots) posting links to sites, most likely pornographic or dealing with online dating, on the comments section of random videos or user profiles. With the addition of a "thumbs up/thumbs down" feature, groups of spambots may constantly "thumbs up" a comment, getting it into the top comments section and making the message more visible. Another frequently used technique is using bots to post messages on random users' profiles to a spam account's channel page, along with enticing text and images, usually of a sexually suggestive nature. These pages may include their own or other users' videos, again often suggestive. The main purpose of these accounts is to draw people to the link in the home page section of their profile. YouTube has blocked the posting of such links. In addition, YouTube has implemented a CAPTCHA system that makes rapid posting of repeated comments much more difficult than before, because of abuse in the past by mass spammers who would flood individuals' profiles with thousands of repetitive comments.
Yet another kind is actual video spam, giving the uploaded movie a name and description with a popular figure or event that is likely to draw attention, or within the video has a certain image timed to come up as the video's thumbnail image to mislead the viewer, such as a still image from a feature film, purporting to be a part-by-part piece of a movie being pirated, e.g. Big Buck Bunny Full Movie Online - Part 1/10 HD, a link to a supposed keygen, trainer, ISO file for a video game, or something similar. The actual content of the video ends up being totally unrelated, a Rickroll, offensive, or simply on-screen text of a link to the site being promoted.[29] In some cases, the link in question may lead to an online survey site, a password-protected archive file with instructions leading to the aforementioned survey (though the survey, and the archive file itself, is worthless and doesn't contain the file in question at all), or in extreme cases, malware.[30] Others may upload videos presented in an infomercial-like format selling their product which feature actors and paid testimonials, though the promoted product or service is of dubious quality and would likely not pass the scrutiny of a standards and practices department at a television station or cable network.
SPIT[edit]
SPIT (SPam over Internet Telephony) is VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) spam, usually using SIP (Session Initiation Protocol). This is nearly identical to telemarketing calls over traditional phone lines. When the user chooses to receive the spam call, a pre-recorded spam message or advertisement is usually played back. This is generally easier for the spammer as VoIP services are cheap and easy to anonymize over the Internet, and there are many options for sending mass amounts of calls from a single location. Accounts or IP addresses being used for VoIP spam can usually be identified by a large number of outgoing calls, low call completion and short call length.
Academic search[edit]
Academic search engines enable researchers to find academic literature and are used to obtain citation data for calculating performance metrics such as the H-index and impact factor. Researchers from the University of California, Berkeley and OvGU demonstrated that most (web-based) academic search engines, especially Google Scholar, are not capable of identifying spam attacks.[31] The researchers manipulated the citation counts of articles, and managed to make Google Scholar index complete fake articles, some containing advertising.[31]
Noncommercial forms[edit]
E-mail and other forms of spamming have been used for purposes other than advertisements. Many early Usenet spams were religious or political. Serdar Argic, for instance, spammed Usenet with historical revisionist screeds. A number of evangelists have spammed Usenet and e-mail media with preaching messages. A growing number of criminals are also using spam to perpetrate various sorts of fraud.[32]
Geographical origins[edit]
In 2011 the origins of spam were analyzed by Cisco Systems. They provided a report that shows spam volume originating from countries worldwide.[33]
Rank Country Spam
volume(%)
1 India 13.7
2 Russia 9.0
3 Vietnam 7.9
4
(tie) South Korea 6.0
Indonesia 6.0
6 China 4.7
7 Brazil 4.5
8 United States 3.2
Trademark issues[edit]
Hormel Foods Corporation, the maker of SPAM luncheon meat, does not object to the Internet use of the term "spamming". However, they did ask that the capitalized word "Spam" be reserved to refer to their product and trademark.[34] By and large, this request is obeyed in forums that discuss spam. In Hormel Foods v. SpamArrest, Hormel attempted to assert its trademark rights against SpamArrest, a software company, from using the mark "spam", since Hormel owns the trademark. In a dilution claim, Hormel argued that SpamArrest's use of the term "spam" had endangered and damaged "substantial goodwill and good reputation" in connection with its trademarked lunch meat and related products. Hormel also asserted that SpamArrest's name so closely resembles its luncheon meat that the public might become confused, or might think that Hormel endorses SpamArrest's products.
Hormel did not prevail. Attorney Derek Newman responded on behalf of SpamArrest: "Spam has become ubiquitous throughout the [w]orld to describe unsolicited commercial email. No company can claim trademark rights on a generic term." Hormel stated on its website: "Ultimately, we are trying to avoid the day when the consuming public asks, 'Why would Hormel Foods name its product after junk email?'".[35]
Hormel also made two attempts that were dismissed in 2005 to revoke the marks "SPAMBUSTER"[36] and Spam Cube.[37] Hormel's corporate attorney Melanie J. Neumann also sent SpamCop's Julian Haight a letter on August 27, 1999 requesting that he delete an objectionable image (a can of Hormel's Spam luncheon meat product in a trash can), change references to UCE spam to all lower case letters, and confirm his agreement to do so.[38]
Cost-benefit analyses[edit]
The European Union's Internal Market Commission estimated in 2001 that "junk email" cost Internet users €10 billion per year worldwide.[39] The California legislature found that spam cost United States organizations alone more than $13 billion in 2007, including lost productivity and the additional equipment, software, and manpower needed to combat the problem.[40] Spam's direct effects include the consumption of computer and network resources, and the cost in human time and attention of dismissing unwanted messages.[41] Large companies who are frequent spam targets utilize numerous techniques to detect and prevent spam.[42]
In addition, spam has costs stemming from the kinds of spam messages sent, from the ways spammers send them, and from the arms race between spammers and those who try to stop or control spam. In addition, there are the opportunity cost of those who forgo the use of spam-afflicted systems. There are the direct costs, as well as the indirect costs borne by the victims—both those related to the spamming itself, and to other crimes that usually accompany it, such as financial theft, identity theft, data and intellectual property theft, virus and other malware infection, child pornography, fraud, and deceptive marketing.
The cost to providers of search engines is not insignificant: "The secondary consequence of spamming is that search engine indexes are inundated with useless pages, increasing the cost of each processed query".[4] The methods of spammers are likewise costly. Because spamming contravenes the vast majority of ISPs' acceptable-use policies, most spammers have for many years gone to some trouble to conceal the origins of their spam. Email, Usenet, and instant-message spam are often sent through insecure proxy servers belonging to unwilling third parties. Spammers frequently use false names, addresses, phone numbers, and other contact information to set up "disposable" accounts at various Internet service providers. In some cases, they have used falsified or stolen credit card numbers to pay for these accounts. This allows them to quickly move from one account to the next as each one is discovered and shut down by the host ISPs.
The costs of spam also include the collateral costs of the struggle between spammers and the administrators and users of the media threatened by spamming.[43] Many users are bothered by spam because it impinges upon the amount of time they spend reading their email. Many also find the content of spam frequently offensive, in that pornography is one of the most frequently advertised products. Spammers send their spam largely indiscriminately, so pornographic ads may show up in a work place email inbox—or a child's, the latter of which is illegal in many jurisdictions. Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in spam advertising websites that contain child pornography.[citation needed]
Some spammers argue that most of these costs could potentially be alleviated by having spammers reimburse ISPs and persons for their material.[citation needed] There are three problems with this logic: first, the rate of reimbursement they could credibly budget is not nearly high enough to pay the direct costs[citation needed], second, the human cost (lost mail, lost time, and lost opportunities) is basically unrecoverable, and third, spammers often use stolen bank accounts and credit cards to finance their operations, and would conceivably do so to pay off any fines imposed.
Email spam exemplifies a tragedy of the commons: spammers use resources (both physical and human), without bearing the entire cost of those resources. In fact, spammers commonly do not bear the cost at all. This raises the costs for everyone. In some ways spam is even a potential threat to the entire email system, as operated in the past. Since email is so cheap to send, a tiny number of spammers can saturate the Internet with junk mail. Although only a tiny percentage of their targets are motivated to purchase their products (or fall victim to their scams), the low cost may provide a sufficient conversion rate to keep the spamming alive. Furthermore, even though spam appears not to be economically viable as a way for a reputable company to do business, it suffices for professional spammers to convince a tiny proportion of gullible advertisers that it is viable for those spammers to stay in business. Finally, new spammers go into business every day, and the low costs allow a single spammer to do a lot of harm before finally realizing that the business is not profitable.
Some companies and groups "rank" spammers; spammers who make the news are sometimes referred to by these rankings.[44][45] The secretive nature of spamming operations makes it difficult to determine how prolific an individual spammer is, thus making the spammer hard to track, block or avoid. Also, spammers may target different networks to different extents, depending on how successful they are at attacking the target. Thus considerable resources are employed to actually measure the amount of spam generated by a single person or group. For example, victims that use common anti-spam hardware, software or services provide opportunities for such tracking. Nevertheless, such rankings should be taken with a grain of salt.
General costs[edit]
In all cases listed above, including both commercial and non-commercial, "spam happens" because of a positive cost-benefit analysis result; if the cost to recipients is excluded as an externality the spammer can avoid paying.
Cost is the combination of
Overhead: The costs and overhead of electronic spamming include bandwidth, developing or acquiring an email/wiki/blog spam tool, taking over or acquiring a host/zombie, etc.
Transaction cost: The incremental cost of contacting each additional recipient once a method of spamming is constructed, multiplied by the number of recipients (see CAPTCHA as a method of increasing transaction costs).
Risks: Chance and severity of legal and/or public reactions, including damages and punitive damages.
Damage: Impact on the community and/or communication channels being spammed (see Newsgroup spam).
Benefit is the total expected profit from spam, which may include any combination of the commercial and non-commercial reasons listed above. It is normally linear, based on the incremental benefit of reaching each additional spam recipient, combined with the conversion rate. The conversion rate for botnet-generated spam has recently been measured to be around one in 12,000,000 for pharmaceutical spam and one in 200,000 for infection sites as used by the Storm botnet.[46] The authors of the study calculating those conversion rates noted, "After 26 days, and almost 350 million e-mail messages, only 28 sales resulted."
In crime[edit]
Spam can be used to spread computer viruses, trojan horses or other malicious software. The objective may be identity theft, or worse (e.g., advance fee fraud). Some spam attempts to capitalize on human greed, while some attempts to take advantage of the victims' inexperience with computer technology to trick them (e.g., phishing). On May 31, 2007, one of the world's most prolific spammers, Robert Alan Soloway, was arrested by US authorities.[47] Described as one of the top ten spammers in the world, Soloway was charged with 35 criminal counts, including mail fraud, wire fraud, e-mail fraud, aggravated identity theft, and money laundering.[47] Prosecutors allege that Soloway used millions of "zombie" computers to distribute spam during 2003.[48] This is the first case in which US prosecutors used identity theft laws to prosecute a spammer for taking over someone else's Internet domain name.[citation needed]
In an attempt to assess potential legal and technical strategies for stopping illegal spam, a study from the University of California, San Diego, and the University of California, Berkeley, "Click Trajectories: End-to-End Analysis of the Spam Value Chain", cataloged three months of online spam data and researched website naming and hosting infrastructures. The study concluded that: 1) half of all spam programs have their domains and servers distributed over just eight percent or fewer of the total available hosting registrars and autonomous systems, with 80 percent of spam programs overall being distributed over just 20 percent of all registrars and autonomous systems; 2) of the 76 purchases for which the researchers received transaction information, there were only 13 distinct banks acting as credit card acquirers and only three banks provided the payment servicing for 95 percent of the spam-advertised goods in the study; and, 3) a "financial blacklist" of banking entities that do business with spammers would dramatically reduce monetization of unwanted e-mails. Moreover, this blacklist could be updated far more rapidly than spammers could acquire new banking resources, an asymmetry favoring anti-spam efforts.[49]
Political issues[edit]
Spamming remains a hot discussion topic. In 2004, the seized Porsche of an indicted spammer was advertised on the Internet;[50] this revealed the extent of the financial rewards available to those who are willing to commit duplicitous acts online. However, some of the possible means used to stop spamming may lead to other side effects, such as increased government control over the Internet, loss of privacy, barriers to free expression, and the commercialization of e-mail.[citation needed]
One of the chief values favored by many long-time Internet users and experts, as well as by many members of the public, is the free exchange of ideas. Many have valued the relative anarchy of the Internet, and bridle at the idea of restrictions placed upon it.[citation needed] A common refrain from spam-fighters is that spamming itself abridges the historical freedom of the Internet, by attempting to force users to carry the costs of material that they would not choose.[citation needed]
An ongoing concern expressed by parties such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the American Civil Liberties Union has to do with so-called "stealth blocking", a term for ISPs employing aggressive spam blocking without their users' knowledge. These groups' concern is that ISPs or technicians seeking to reduce spam-related costs may select tools that (either through error or design) also block non-spam e-mail from sites seen as "spam-friendly". Spam Prevention Early Warning System (SPEWS) is a common target of these criticisms. Few object to the existence of these tools; it is their use in filtering the mail of users who are not informed of their use that draws fire.[citation needed]
Some see spam-blocking tools as a threat to free expression—and laws against spamming as an untoward precedent for regulation or taxation of e-mail and the Internet at large. Even though it is possible in some jurisdictions to treat some spam as unlawful merely by applying existing laws against trespass and conversion, some laws specifically targeting spam have been proposed. In 2004, United States passed the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 that provided ISPs with tools to combat spam. This act allowed Yahoo! to successfully sue Eric Head, reportedly one of the biggest spammers in the World, who settled the lawsuit for several thousand U.S. dollars in June 2004. But the law is criticized by many for not being effective enough. Indeed, the law was supported by some spammers and organizations that support spamming, and opposed by many in the anti-spam community. Examples of effective anti-abuse laws that respect free speech rights include those in the U.S. against unsolicited faxes and phone calls, and those in Australia and a few U.S. states against spam.[citation needed]
In November 2004, Lycos Europe released a screen saver called make LOVE not SPAM that made Distributed Denial of Service attacks on the spammers themselves. It met with a large amount of controversy and the initiative ended in December 2004.[51][52][53]
Anti-spam policies may also be a form of disguised censorship, a way to ban access or reference to questioning alternative forums or blogs by an institution. This form of occult censorship is mainly used by private companies when they cannot muzzle criticism by legal ways.[54]
Court cases[edit]
See also: E-mail spam legislation by country
United States[edit]
Sanford Wallace and Cyber Promotions were the target of a string of lawsuits, many of which were settled out of court, up through a 1998 Earthlink settlement[citation needed] that put Cyber Promotions out of business. Attorney Laurence Canter was disbarred by the Tennessee Supreme Court in 1997 for sending prodigious amounts of spam advertising his immigration law practice. In 2005, Jason Smathers, a former America Online employee, pleaded guilty to charges of violating the CAN-SPAM Act. In 2003, he sold a list of approximately 93 million AOL subscriber e-mail addresses to Sean Dunaway who, in turn, sold the list to spammers.[55][56]
In 2007, Robert Soloway lost a case in a federal court against the operator of a small Oklahoma-based Internet service provider who accused him of spamming. U.S. Judge Ralph G. Thompson granted a motion by plaintiff Robert Braver for a default judgment and permanent injunction against him. The judgment includes a statutory damages award of $10,075,000 under Oklahoma law.[57]
In June 2007, two men were convicted of eight counts stemming from sending millions of e-mail spam messages that included hardcore pornographic images. Jeffrey A. Kilbride, 41, of Venice, California was sentenced to six years in prison, and James R. Schaffer, 41, of Paradise Valley, Arizona, was sentenced to 63 months. In addition, the two were fined $100,000, ordered to pay $77,500 in restitution to AOL, and ordered to forfeit more than $1.1 million, the amount of illegal proceeds from their spamming operation.[58] The charges included conspiracy, fraud, money laundering, and transportation of obscene materials. The trial, which began on June 5, was the first to include charges under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, according to a release from the Department of Justice. The specific law that prosecutors used under the CAN-Spam Act was designed to crack down on the transmission of pornography in spam.[59]
In 2005, Scott J. Filary and Donald E. Townsend of Tampa, Florida were sued by Florida Attorney General Charlie Crist for violating the Florida Electronic Mail Communications Act.[60] The two spammers were required to pay $50,000 USD to cover the costs of investigation by the state of Florida, and a $1.1 million penalty if spamming were to continue, the $50,000 was not paid, or the financial statements provided were found to be inaccurate. The spamming operation was successfully shut down.[61]
Edna Fiedler, 44, of Olympia, Washington, on June 25, 2008, pleaded guilty in a Tacoma court and was sentenced to 2 years imprisonment and 5 years of supervised release or probation in an Internet $1 million "Nigerian check scam." She conspired to commit bank, wire and mail fraud, against US citizens, specifically using Internet by having had an accomplice who shipped counterfeit checks and money orders to her from Lagos, Nigeria, the previous November. Fiedler shipped out $609,000 fake check and money orders when arrested and prepared to send additional $1.1 million counterfeit materials. Also, the U.S. Postal Service recently intercepted counterfeit checks, lottery tickets and eBay overpayment schemes with a face value of $2.1 billion.[62][63]
In a 2009 opinion, Gordon v. Virtumundo, Inc., 575 F.3d 1040, the Ninth Circuit assessed the standing requirements necessary for a private plaintiff to bring a civil cause of action against spam senders under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, as well as the scope of the CAN-SPAM Act's federal preemption clause.[64]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the first successful case of its kind, Nigel Roberts from the Channel Islands won £270 against Media Logistics UK who sent junk e-mails to his personal account.[65]
In January 2007, a Sheriff Court in Scotland awarded Mr. Gordon Dick £750 (the then maximum sum that could be awarded in a Small Claim action) plus expenses of £618.66, a total of £1368.66 against Transcom Internet Services Ltd.[66] for breaching anti-spam laws.[67] Transcom had been legally represented at earlier hearings, but were not represented at the proof, so Gordon Dick got his decree by default. It is the largest amount awarded in compensation in the United Kingdom since Roberts v Media Logistics case in 2005.
Despite the statutory tort that is created by the Regulations implementing the EC Directive, few other people have followed their example. As the Courts engage in active case management, such cases would probably now be expected to be settled by mediation and payment of nominal damages.
New Zealand[edit]
In October 2008, a vast international internet spam operation run from New Zealand was cited by American authorities as one of the world’s largest, and for a time responsible for up to a third of all unwanted e-mails. In a statement the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) named Christchurch’s Lance Atkinson as one of the principals of the operation. New Zealand’s Internal Affairs announced it had lodged a $200,000 claim in the High Court against Atkinson and his brother Shane Atkinson and courier Roland Smits, after raids in Christchurch. This marked the first prosecution since the Unsolicited Electronic Messages Act (UEMA) was passed in September 2007. The FTC said it had received more than three million complaints about spam messages connected to this operation, and estimated that it may be responsible for sending billions of illegal spam messages. The US District Court froze the defendants’ assets to preserve them for consumer redress pending trial.[68] U.S. co-defendant Jody Smith forfeited more than $800,000 and faces up to five years in prison for charges to which he pleaded guilty.[69]
Bulgaria[edit]
While most countries either outlaw or at least ignore spam, Bulgaria is the first and until now[when?] only one[citation needed]to legalize it. According to the Bulgarian E-Commerce act[70] (Чл.5,6) anyone can send spam to mailboxes published as owned by a company or organization, as long as there is a "clear and straight indication that the message is unsolicited commercial e-mail" ("да осигури ясното и недвусмислено разпознаване на търговското съобщение като непоискано") in the message body.
This made lawsuits against Bulgarian ISP's and public e-mail providers with antispam policy possible, as they are obstructing legal commerce activity and thus violate Bulgarian antitrust acts. While there are no such lawsuits until now, several cases of spam obstruction are currently awaiting decision in the Bulgarian Antitrust Commission (Комисия за защита на конкуренцията) and can end with serious fines for the ISP's in question.[when?][citation needed]
The law contains other dubious provisions — for example, the creation of a nationwide public electronic register of e-mail addresses that do not want to receive spam.[71] It is usually abused as the perfect source for e-mail address harvesting, because publishing invalid or incorrect information in such a register is a criminal offense in Bulgaria.
Aimlessly swimming in circumcisions
Morgan Freeman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the director, see Morgan J. Freeman.
Morgan Freeman
Academy Award-winning actor Morgan Freeman narrates for the opening ceremony (26904746425) (cropped).jpg
Freeman narrating for the opening ceremony to the 2016 Invictus Games in Orlando, Florida
Born June 1, 1937 (age 79)
Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.
Occupation Actor
Years active 1964–present
Spouse(s)
Jeanette Adair Bradshaw (m. 1967–79)
Myrna Colley-Lee (m. 1984–2010)
Children Alfonso Freeman, Saifoulaye Freeman, Deena Freeman, Morgana Freeman
Morgan Freeman's voice
0:00
from BBC Radio 4's The Film Programme, September 12, 2008.[1]
Morgan Freeman[2] (born June 1, 1937)[3] is an American actor and narrator. Freeman won an Academy Award in 2005 for Best Supporting Actor with Million Dollar Baby (2004), and he has received Oscar nominations for his performances in Street Smart (1987), Driving Miss Daisy (1989), The Shawshank Redemption (1994) and Invictus (2009). He has also won a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award. Freeman has appeared in many other box office hits, including Glory (1989), Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991), Seven (1995), Deep Impact (199
, The Sum of All Fears (2002), Bruce Almighty (2003), The Dark Knight Trilogy, The Lego Movie (2014), and Lucy (2014). He is known for his distinctively smooth, deep voice. He got his break as part of the cast of the 1970s children's program The Electric Company. Morgan Freeman is ranked as the 3rd highest box office star with over $4.316 billion total box office gross, an average of $74.4 million per film.[4]
Contents [hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Career
2.1 Acting career
2.2 Other work
3 Personal life
3.1 Family
3.2 Religious views
3.3 Properties
3.4 Flying
3.5 Car accident
4 Activism
4.1 Charitable work
4.2 Politics
4.3 Comments on racism
5 Filmography
6 Awards and honors
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 External links
Early life and education
Morgan Freeman was born in Memphis, Tennessee, on June 1, 1937. He is the son of Mayme Edna (née Revere; 1912–2000), a teacher,[5] and Morgan Porterfield Freeman,[2] a barber who died on April 27, 1961, from cirrhosis. He has three older siblings. According to a DNA analysis, some of his ancestors were from Niger.[6] Freeman was sent as an infant to his paternal grandmother in Charleston, Mississippi.[7][8][9] He moved frequently during his childhood, living in Greenwood, Mississippi; Gary, Indiana; and finally Chicago, Illinois.[9]
Freeman made his acting debut at age nine, playing the lead role in a school play. He then attended Broad Street High School, a building which serves today as Threadgill Elementary School, in Greenwood, Mississippi.[10] At age 12, he won a statewide drama competition, and while still at Broad Street High School, he performed in a radio show based in Nashville, Tennessee. In 1955, he graduated from Broad Street, but turned down a partial drama scholarship from Jackson State University, opting instead to enlist in the United States Air Force[11] and served as an Automatic Tracking Radar Repairman, rising to the rank of Airman 1st Class.[12]
After four years in the military, he moved to Los Angeles, California, where he took acting lessons at the Pasadena Playhouse and dancing lessons in San Francisco in the early 1960s and worked as a transcript clerk at Los Angeles City College.[11] During this period, Freeman also lived in New York City, working as a dancer at the 1964 World's Fair, and in San Francisco, where he was a member of the Opera Ring musical theater group. He acted in a touring company version of The Royal Hunt of the Sun, and also appeared as an extra in the 1965 film The Pawnbroker. Freeman made his off-Broadway debut in 1967, opposite Viveca Lindfors in The Nigger Lovers[13][14] (about the Freedom Riders during the American Civil Rights Movement), before debuting on Broadway in 1968's all-black version of Hello, Dolly! which also starred Pearl Bailey and Cab Calloway.
He continued to be involved in theater work and received the Obie Award in 1980 for the title role in Coriolanus. In 1984, he received his second Obie Award for his role as the preacher in The Gospel at Colonus. Freeman also won a Drama Desk Award and a Clarence Derwent Award for his role as a wino in The Mighty Gents. He received his third Obie Award for his role as a chauffeur for a Jewish widow in Driving Miss Daisy, which was adapted for the screen in 1989.[11]
Career
Freeman at the 10 Items or Less premiere in Madrid with co-star Paz Vega
Freeman and daughter Morgana Freeman at the 1990 Academy Awards
Acting career
Although his first credited film appearance was in 1971's Who Says I Can't Ride a Rainbow?, Freeman first became known in the American media through roles on the soap opera Another World and the PBS kids' show The Electric Company[9] (notably as Easy Reader, Mel Mounds the DJ, and Vincent the Vegetable Vampire[clip]).
During his tenure with The Electric Company, "(i)t was a very unhappy period in his life," according to Joan Ganz Cooney.[15] Freeman himself admitted in an interview that he never thinks about his tenure with the show at all.[16] Since then, Freeman has considered his Street Smart (1987) character Fast Black, rather than any of the characters he played in The Electric Company, to be his breakthrough role.[16][17]
Beginning in the mid-1980s, Freeman began playing prominent supporting roles in many feature films, earning him a reputation for depicting wise, fatherly characters.[9] As he gained fame, he went on to bigger roles in films such as the chauffeur Hoke in Driving Miss Daisy, and Sergeant Major Rawlins in Glory (both in 1989).[9] In 1994, he portrayed Red, the redeemed convict in the acclaimed The Shawshank Redemption. In the same year he was a member of the jury at the 44th Berlin International Film Festival.[18]
He also starred in such films as Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, Unforgiven, Seven, and Deep Impact. In 1997, Freeman, together with Lori McCreary, founded the film production company Revelations Entertainment, and the two co-head its sister online film distribution company ClickStar. Freeman also hosts the channel Our Space on ClickStar, with specially crafted film clips in which he shares his love for the sciences, especially space exploration and aeronautics.
After three previous nominations—a supporting actor nomination for Street Smart, and leading actor nominations for Driving Miss Daisy and The Shawshank Redemption—he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in Million Dollar Baby at the 77th Academy Awards.[9] Freeman is recognized for his distinctive voice, making him a frequent choice for narration. In 2005 alone, he provided narration for two films, War of the Worlds and the Academy Award-winning documentary film March of the Penguins.
Freeman appeared as God in the hit film Bruce Almighty and its sequel, Evan Almighty, as well as Lucius Fox in the critical and commercial success Batman Begins and its sequels, The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises. He starred in Rob Reiner's 2007 film The Bucket List, opposite Jack Nicholson. He teamed with Christopher Walken and William H. Macy for the comedy The Maiden Heist, which was released direct to video due to financial problems with the distribution company. In 2008, Freeman returned to Broadway to co-star with Frances McDormand and Peter Gallagher for a limited engagement of Clifford Odets's play, The Country Girl, directed by Mike Nichols.
He had wanted to do a film based on Nelson Mandela for some time. At first he tried to get Mandela's autobiography Long Walk to Freedom adapted into a finished script, but it was not finalized.[19] In 2007, he purchased the film rights to a book by John Carlin, Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the Game That Made a Nation.[20] Clint Eastwood directed the Nelson Mandela bio-pic titled Invictus, starring Freeman as Mandela and Matt Damon as rugby team captain Francois Pienaar.[21]
In 2010, Freeman co-starred alongside Bruce Willis in Red.[22] In 2013, Freeman appeared in the action-thriller Olympus Has Fallen, the science fiction drama Oblivion, and the comedy Last Vegas. In 2014, he co-starred in the action film Lucy.
In 2015, Freeman played the Chief Justice of the United States in the season two premiere of Madam Secretary (Freeman is also one of the series' executive producers).
Other work
Freeman in December 2008
Freeman made his directorial debut in 1993 with Bopha! for Paramount Pictures.
In July 2009, Freeman was one of the presenters at the 46664 Concert celebrating Nelson Mandela's birthday at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. Freeman was the first American to record a par on Legend Golf & Safari Resort's Extreme 19th hole.[23]
Effective January 4, 2010, Freeman replaced Walter Cronkite as the voiceover introduction to the CBS Evening News featuring Katie Couric as news anchor.[24] CBS cited the need for consistency in introductions for regular news broadcasts and special reports as the basis for the change.[24] As of 2010, Freeman is the host and narrator of the Discovery Channel television show, focused on physics outreach, Through the Wormhole.[25]
He was featured on the opening track to B.o.B's second album Strange Clouds. The track "Bombs Away" features a prologue and epilogue (which leads into a musical outro) spoken by Freeman. In 2011, Freeman was featured with John Lithgow in the Broadway debut of Dustin Lance Black's play, 8, a staged reenactment of Perry v. Brown, the federal trial that overturned California's Proposition 8 ban on same-sex marriage. Freeman played Attorney David Boies.[26] The production was held at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre in New York City to raise money for the American Foundation for Equal Rights.[27][28]
In 2015 Freeman directed "The Show Must Go On," the season two premiere of Madam Secretary.
Personal life
Family
From his early life, Freeman has two extramarital children; one of them is Alfonso Freeman.[29]
Freeman was married to Jeanette Adair Bradshaw from October 22, 1967, until November 18, 1979.[30]
He married Myrna Colley-Lee on June 16, 1984.[30] The couple separated in December 2007.[31] Freeman's attorney and business partner Bill Luckett announced in August 2008 that Freeman and his wife were in divorce proceedings.[32] On September 15, 2010, their divorce was finalized in Mississippi.[31]
Freeman and Colley-Lee adopted Freeman's stepgranddaughter from his first marriage, E'dena Hines, and raised her together.[33] On August 16, 2015, 33-year-old Hines was murdered in New York City.[34]
In 2008 the TV series African American Lives 2 revealed that some of Freeman's great-great-grandparents were slaves who migrated from North Carolina to Mississippi. Freeman discovered that his Caucasian maternal great-great-grandfather had lived with, and was buried beside, Freeman's African-American great-great-grandmother (in the segregated South, the two could not marry legally at the time).[5] A DNA test on the series stated that he is descended in part from the Songhai and Tuareg peoples of Niger.[6]
Religious views
In a 2012 interview with TheWrap, Freeman was asked if he considered himself atheist or agnostic. He replied, "It's a hard question because as I said at the start, I think we invented God. So if I believe in God, and I do, it's because I think I'm God."[35]
Properties
Freeman lives in Charleston, Mississippi, and New York City. He owns and operates Ground Zero, a blues club in Clarksdale, Mississippi. He formerly co-owned Madidi, a fine dining restaurant, also in Clarksdale.[36]
Flying
At age 65, Freeman earned a private pilot's license.[37] He owns or has owned at least three private aircraft, including a Cessna Citation 501 jet and a Cessna 414 twin-engine prop. In 2007 he purchased an Emivest SJ30[38] long-range private jet and took delivery in December 2009.[39] He is certified to fly all of them.[40]
Car accident
Freeman was injured in an automobile accident near Ruleville, Mississippi, on the night of August 3, 2008. The vehicle in which he was traveling, a 1997 Nissan Maxima, left the highway and flipped over several times. He and a female passenger, Demaris Meyer, were rescued from the vehicle using the "Jaws of Life". Freeman was taken via medical helicopter to The Regional Medical Center (The Med) hospital in Memphis.[41][42] Police ruled out alcohol as a factor in the crash.[43] Freeman was coherent following the crash, as he joked with a photographer about taking his picture at the scene.[44] His left shoulder, arm, and elbow were broken in the crash, and he had surgery on August 5, 2008. Doctors operated for four hours to repair nerve damage in his shoulder and arm.[45] On CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight he stated that he is left handed but cannot move the fingers of his left hand. He wears a compression glove to protect against blood pooling due to non-movement. His publicist announced he was expected to make a full recovery.[46] Meyer, his passenger, sued him for negligence, claiming that he was drinking the night of the accident. Subsequently, the suit was settled.[47]
Activism
Charitable work
In 2004, Freeman and others formed the Grenada Relief Fund to aid people affected by Hurricane Ivan on the island of Grenada. The fund has since become PLANIT NOW, an organization that seeks to provide preparedness resources for people living in areas afflicted by hurricanes and severe storms.[48] Freeman has worked on narrating small clips for global organizations, such as One Earth,[49] whose goals include raising awareness of environmental issues. He has narrated the clip "Why Are We Here," which can be viewed on One Earth's website. Freeman has donated money to the Mississippi Horse Park in Starkville, Mississippi. The park is part of Mississippi State University and Freeman has several horses that he takes there.[50]
Politics
Freeman endorsed Barack Obama's candidacy for the 2008 presidential election, although he stated that he would not join Obama's campaign.[51] He narrates for The Hall of Presidents with Barack Obama, who has been added to the exhibit.[52][53] The Hall of Presidents re-opened on July 4, 2009, at Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida.[53] Freeman joined President Bill Clinton, USA Bid Committee Chairman Sunil Gulati, and USMNT midfielder Landon Donovan on Wednesday, December 1, 2010, in Zurich for the U.S. bid committee's final presentation to FIFA for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[54]
Comments on racism
Freeman has publicly criticized the celebration of Black History Month and does not participate in any related events, saying, "I don't want a black history month. Black history is American history."[55] He says the only way to end racism is to stop talking about it, and he notes that there is no "white history month."[56] Freeman once said in an interview with 60 Minutes's Mike Wallace, "I am going to stop calling you a white man and I'm going to ask you to stop calling me a black man."[55][57] Freeman supported the defeated proposal to change the Mississippi state flag, which contains the Confederate battle flag.[58][59] Freeman sparked controversy in 2011 when, on CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight, he accused the Tea Party movement of racism.[60][61][62]
In reaction to the death of Freddie Gray and the 2015 Baltimore protests, Freeman said he was "absolutely" supportive of the protesters. "That unrest [in Baltimore] has nothing to do with terrorism at all, except the terrorism we suffer from the police. [...] Because of the technology—everybody has a smartphone—now we can see what the police are doing. We can show the world, Look, this is what happened in that situation. So why are so many people dying in police custody? And why are they all black? And why are all the police killing them white? What is that? The police have always said, 'I feared for my safety.' Well, now we know. OK. You feared for your safety while a guy was running away from you, right?"[63]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the director, see Morgan J. Freeman.
Morgan Freeman
Academy Award-winning actor Morgan Freeman narrates for the opening ceremony (26904746425) (cropped).jpg
Freeman narrating for the opening ceremony to the 2016 Invictus Games in Orlando, Florida
Born June 1, 1937 (age 79)
Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.
Occupation Actor
Years active 1964–present
Spouse(s)
Jeanette Adair Bradshaw (m. 1967–79)
Myrna Colley-Lee (m. 1984–2010)
Children Alfonso Freeman, Saifoulaye Freeman, Deena Freeman, Morgana Freeman
Morgan Freeman's voice
0:00
from BBC Radio 4's The Film Programme, September 12, 2008.[1]
Morgan Freeman[2] (born June 1, 1937)[3] is an American actor and narrator. Freeman won an Academy Award in 2005 for Best Supporting Actor with Million Dollar Baby (2004), and he has received Oscar nominations for his performances in Street Smart (1987), Driving Miss Daisy (1989), The Shawshank Redemption (1994) and Invictus (2009). He has also won a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award. Freeman has appeared in many other box office hits, including Glory (1989), Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991), Seven (1995), Deep Impact (199
, The Sum of All Fears (2002), Bruce Almighty (2003), The Dark Knight Trilogy, The Lego Movie (2014), and Lucy (2014). He is known for his distinctively smooth, deep voice. He got his break as part of the cast of the 1970s children's program The Electric Company. Morgan Freeman is ranked as the 3rd highest box office star with over $4.316 billion total box office gross, an average of $74.4 million per film.[4]Contents [hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Career
2.1 Acting career
2.2 Other work
3 Personal life
3.1 Family
3.2 Religious views
3.3 Properties
3.4 Flying
3.5 Car accident
4 Activism
4.1 Charitable work
4.2 Politics
4.3 Comments on racism
5 Filmography
6 Awards and honors
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 External links
Early life and education
Morgan Freeman was born in Memphis, Tennessee, on June 1, 1937. He is the son of Mayme Edna (née Revere; 1912–2000), a teacher,[5] and Morgan Porterfield Freeman,[2] a barber who died on April 27, 1961, from cirrhosis. He has three older siblings. According to a DNA analysis, some of his ancestors were from Niger.[6] Freeman was sent as an infant to his paternal grandmother in Charleston, Mississippi.[7][8][9] He moved frequently during his childhood, living in Greenwood, Mississippi; Gary, Indiana; and finally Chicago, Illinois.[9]
Freeman made his acting debut at age nine, playing the lead role in a school play. He then attended Broad Street High School, a building which serves today as Threadgill Elementary School, in Greenwood, Mississippi.[10] At age 12, he won a statewide drama competition, and while still at Broad Street High School, he performed in a radio show based in Nashville, Tennessee. In 1955, he graduated from Broad Street, but turned down a partial drama scholarship from Jackson State University, opting instead to enlist in the United States Air Force[11] and served as an Automatic Tracking Radar Repairman, rising to the rank of Airman 1st Class.[12]
After four years in the military, he moved to Los Angeles, California, where he took acting lessons at the Pasadena Playhouse and dancing lessons in San Francisco in the early 1960s and worked as a transcript clerk at Los Angeles City College.[11] During this period, Freeman also lived in New York City, working as a dancer at the 1964 World's Fair, and in San Francisco, where he was a member of the Opera Ring musical theater group. He acted in a touring company version of The Royal Hunt of the Sun, and also appeared as an extra in the 1965 film The Pawnbroker. Freeman made his off-Broadway debut in 1967, opposite Viveca Lindfors in The Nigger Lovers[13][14] (about the Freedom Riders during the American Civil Rights Movement), before debuting on Broadway in 1968's all-black version of Hello, Dolly! which also starred Pearl Bailey and Cab Calloway.
He continued to be involved in theater work and received the Obie Award in 1980 for the title role in Coriolanus. In 1984, he received his second Obie Award for his role as the preacher in The Gospel at Colonus. Freeman also won a Drama Desk Award and a Clarence Derwent Award for his role as a wino in The Mighty Gents. He received his third Obie Award for his role as a chauffeur for a Jewish widow in Driving Miss Daisy, which was adapted for the screen in 1989.[11]
Career
Freeman at the 10 Items or Less premiere in Madrid with co-star Paz Vega
Freeman and daughter Morgana Freeman at the 1990 Academy Awards
Acting career
Although his first credited film appearance was in 1971's Who Says I Can't Ride a Rainbow?, Freeman first became known in the American media through roles on the soap opera Another World and the PBS kids' show The Electric Company[9] (notably as Easy Reader, Mel Mounds the DJ, and Vincent the Vegetable Vampire[clip]).
During his tenure with The Electric Company, "(i)t was a very unhappy period in his life," according to Joan Ganz Cooney.[15] Freeman himself admitted in an interview that he never thinks about his tenure with the show at all.[16] Since then, Freeman has considered his Street Smart (1987) character Fast Black, rather than any of the characters he played in The Electric Company, to be his breakthrough role.[16][17]
Beginning in the mid-1980s, Freeman began playing prominent supporting roles in many feature films, earning him a reputation for depicting wise, fatherly characters.[9] As he gained fame, he went on to bigger roles in films such as the chauffeur Hoke in Driving Miss Daisy, and Sergeant Major Rawlins in Glory (both in 1989).[9] In 1994, he portrayed Red, the redeemed convict in the acclaimed The Shawshank Redemption. In the same year he was a member of the jury at the 44th Berlin International Film Festival.[18]
He also starred in such films as Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, Unforgiven, Seven, and Deep Impact. In 1997, Freeman, together with Lori McCreary, founded the film production company Revelations Entertainment, and the two co-head its sister online film distribution company ClickStar. Freeman also hosts the channel Our Space on ClickStar, with specially crafted film clips in which he shares his love for the sciences, especially space exploration and aeronautics.
After three previous nominations—a supporting actor nomination for Street Smart, and leading actor nominations for Driving Miss Daisy and The Shawshank Redemption—he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in Million Dollar Baby at the 77th Academy Awards.[9] Freeman is recognized for his distinctive voice, making him a frequent choice for narration. In 2005 alone, he provided narration for two films, War of the Worlds and the Academy Award-winning documentary film March of the Penguins.
Freeman appeared as God in the hit film Bruce Almighty and its sequel, Evan Almighty, as well as Lucius Fox in the critical and commercial success Batman Begins and its sequels, The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises. He starred in Rob Reiner's 2007 film The Bucket List, opposite Jack Nicholson. He teamed with Christopher Walken and William H. Macy for the comedy The Maiden Heist, which was released direct to video due to financial problems with the distribution company. In 2008, Freeman returned to Broadway to co-star with Frances McDormand and Peter Gallagher for a limited engagement of Clifford Odets's play, The Country Girl, directed by Mike Nichols.
He had wanted to do a film based on Nelson Mandela for some time. At first he tried to get Mandela's autobiography Long Walk to Freedom adapted into a finished script, but it was not finalized.[19] In 2007, he purchased the film rights to a book by John Carlin, Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the Game That Made a Nation.[20] Clint Eastwood directed the Nelson Mandela bio-pic titled Invictus, starring Freeman as Mandela and Matt Damon as rugby team captain Francois Pienaar.[21]
In 2010, Freeman co-starred alongside Bruce Willis in Red.[22] In 2013, Freeman appeared in the action-thriller Olympus Has Fallen, the science fiction drama Oblivion, and the comedy Last Vegas. In 2014, he co-starred in the action film Lucy.
In 2015, Freeman played the Chief Justice of the United States in the season two premiere of Madam Secretary (Freeman is also one of the series' executive producers).
Other work
Freeman in December 2008
Freeman made his directorial debut in 1993 with Bopha! for Paramount Pictures.
In July 2009, Freeman was one of the presenters at the 46664 Concert celebrating Nelson Mandela's birthday at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. Freeman was the first American to record a par on Legend Golf & Safari Resort's Extreme 19th hole.[23]
Effective January 4, 2010, Freeman replaced Walter Cronkite as the voiceover introduction to the CBS Evening News featuring Katie Couric as news anchor.[24] CBS cited the need for consistency in introductions for regular news broadcasts and special reports as the basis for the change.[24] As of 2010, Freeman is the host and narrator of the Discovery Channel television show, focused on physics outreach, Through the Wormhole.[25]
He was featured on the opening track to B.o.B's second album Strange Clouds. The track "Bombs Away" features a prologue and epilogue (which leads into a musical outro) spoken by Freeman. In 2011, Freeman was featured with John Lithgow in the Broadway debut of Dustin Lance Black's play, 8, a staged reenactment of Perry v. Brown, the federal trial that overturned California's Proposition 8 ban on same-sex marriage. Freeman played Attorney David Boies.[26] The production was held at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre in New York City to raise money for the American Foundation for Equal Rights.[27][28]
In 2015 Freeman directed "The Show Must Go On," the season two premiere of Madam Secretary.
Personal life
Family
From his early life, Freeman has two extramarital children; one of them is Alfonso Freeman.[29]
Freeman was married to Jeanette Adair Bradshaw from October 22, 1967, until November 18, 1979.[30]
He married Myrna Colley-Lee on June 16, 1984.[30] The couple separated in December 2007.[31] Freeman's attorney and business partner Bill Luckett announced in August 2008 that Freeman and his wife were in divorce proceedings.[32] On September 15, 2010, their divorce was finalized in Mississippi.[31]
Freeman and Colley-Lee adopted Freeman's stepgranddaughter from his first marriage, E'dena Hines, and raised her together.[33] On August 16, 2015, 33-year-old Hines was murdered in New York City.[34]
In 2008 the TV series African American Lives 2 revealed that some of Freeman's great-great-grandparents were slaves who migrated from North Carolina to Mississippi. Freeman discovered that his Caucasian maternal great-great-grandfather had lived with, and was buried beside, Freeman's African-American great-great-grandmother (in the segregated South, the two could not marry legally at the time).[5] A DNA test on the series stated that he is descended in part from the Songhai and Tuareg peoples of Niger.[6]
Religious views
In a 2012 interview with TheWrap, Freeman was asked if he considered himself atheist or agnostic. He replied, "It's a hard question because as I said at the start, I think we invented God. So if I believe in God, and I do, it's because I think I'm God."[35]
Properties
Freeman lives in Charleston, Mississippi, and New York City. He owns and operates Ground Zero, a blues club in Clarksdale, Mississippi. He formerly co-owned Madidi, a fine dining restaurant, also in Clarksdale.[36]
Flying
At age 65, Freeman earned a private pilot's license.[37] He owns or has owned at least three private aircraft, including a Cessna Citation 501 jet and a Cessna 414 twin-engine prop. In 2007 he purchased an Emivest SJ30[38] long-range private jet and took delivery in December 2009.[39] He is certified to fly all of them.[40]
Car accident
Freeman was injured in an automobile accident near Ruleville, Mississippi, on the night of August 3, 2008. The vehicle in which he was traveling, a 1997 Nissan Maxima, left the highway and flipped over several times. He and a female passenger, Demaris Meyer, were rescued from the vehicle using the "Jaws of Life". Freeman was taken via medical helicopter to The Regional Medical Center (The Med) hospital in Memphis.[41][42] Police ruled out alcohol as a factor in the crash.[43] Freeman was coherent following the crash, as he joked with a photographer about taking his picture at the scene.[44] His left shoulder, arm, and elbow were broken in the crash, and he had surgery on August 5, 2008. Doctors operated for four hours to repair nerve damage in his shoulder and arm.[45] On CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight he stated that he is left handed but cannot move the fingers of his left hand. He wears a compression glove to protect against blood pooling due to non-movement. His publicist announced he was expected to make a full recovery.[46] Meyer, his passenger, sued him for negligence, claiming that he was drinking the night of the accident. Subsequently, the suit was settled.[47]
Activism
Charitable work
In 2004, Freeman and others formed the Grenada Relief Fund to aid people affected by Hurricane Ivan on the island of Grenada. The fund has since become PLANIT NOW, an organization that seeks to provide preparedness resources for people living in areas afflicted by hurricanes and severe storms.[48] Freeman has worked on narrating small clips for global organizations, such as One Earth,[49] whose goals include raising awareness of environmental issues. He has narrated the clip "Why Are We Here," which can be viewed on One Earth's website. Freeman has donated money to the Mississippi Horse Park in Starkville, Mississippi. The park is part of Mississippi State University and Freeman has several horses that he takes there.[50]
Politics
Freeman endorsed Barack Obama's candidacy for the 2008 presidential election, although he stated that he would not join Obama's campaign.[51] He narrates for The Hall of Presidents with Barack Obama, who has been added to the exhibit.[52][53] The Hall of Presidents re-opened on July 4, 2009, at Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida.[53] Freeman joined President Bill Clinton, USA Bid Committee Chairman Sunil Gulati, and USMNT midfielder Landon Donovan on Wednesday, December 1, 2010, in Zurich for the U.S. bid committee's final presentation to FIFA for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[54]
Comments on racism
Freeman has publicly criticized the celebration of Black History Month and does not participate in any related events, saying, "I don't want a black history month. Black history is American history."[55] He says the only way to end racism is to stop talking about it, and he notes that there is no "white history month."[56] Freeman once said in an interview with 60 Minutes's Mike Wallace, "I am going to stop calling you a white man and I'm going to ask you to stop calling me a black man."[55][57] Freeman supported the defeated proposal to change the Mississippi state flag, which contains the Confederate battle flag.[58][59] Freeman sparked controversy in 2011 when, on CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight, he accused the Tea Party movement of racism.[60][61][62]
In reaction to the death of Freddie Gray and the 2015 Baltimore protests, Freeman said he was "absolutely" supportive of the protesters. "That unrest [in Baltimore] has nothing to do with terrorism at all, except the terrorism we suffer from the police. [...] Because of the technology—everybody has a smartphone—now we can see what the police are doing. We can show the world, Look, this is what happened in that situation. So why are so many people dying in police custody? And why are they all black? And why are all the police killing them white? What is that? The police have always said, 'I feared for my safety.' Well, now we know. OK. You feared for your safety while a guy was running away from you, right?"[63]
"do it again and i'll insert my giant watermelon dick into your cornhole" ~ Smaguris
List of Presidents of the Congress of Deputies of Spain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
List of Presidents of the Congress of Deputies of Spain.
Contents [hide]
1 Presidents of the Cortes de Cadiz (1810-1814)
2 Presidents of the Cortes of the Trienio Liberal (1820-1823)
3 Presidents of the Estamento de Procuradores del Reino (1834-1836)
4 Presidents of the Congress of Deputies (1836-1939)
5 Presidents of the Cortes of the Francoist dictatorship (1943-1975)
6 Presidents of the Francoist Cortes under the new King Juan Carlos I; transition towards democracy (1975-1977)
7 Presidents of the Cortes - redemocratization period; freely elected Cortes empowered to draft the Constitution (1977-197
8 Presidents of the Congress of Deputies
9 Footnotes
10 Sources
Presidents of the Cortes de Cadiz (1810-1814)[edit]
Name Period Party
Benito Ramón Hermida Maldonado 24 September 1810
Ramón Lázaro de Dou y de Bassols 24 September - 23 October 1810
Luis Rodríguez del Monte 24 October - 23 November 1810
José Luis Morales Gallego 24 November - 23 December 1810
Alonso Cañedo Vigil 24 December 1810 - 23 January 1811
Antonio Joaquín Pérez Martínez 24 January - 23 February 1811
Vicente Noguera Climent 24 February - 23 March 1811
Diego Muñoz Torrero 24 March - 23 April 1811
Vicente Cano Manuel y Ramírez de Arellano 24 April - 23 May 1811
José Pablo Valiente y Bravo 24 May - 23 July 1811
Jaime Creus Martí 23 July – 24 July 1811
Juan José Guereña y Garayo 24 July - 23 August 1811
Ramón Giraldo y Arquellada 24 August - 23 September 1811
Bernardo Nadal Crespí 24 September - 23 October 1811
Antonio Larrazábal y Arrivillaga 24 October - 23 November 1811
José Casquete de Prado 24 November - 23 December 1811
Manuel de Villafañe y Andreu 24 December 1811 - 23 January 1812
Antonio Payán de Tejada y Figueroa 24 January - 23 February 1812
Vicente Pascual y Esteban 24 February - 23 March 1812
Vicente Morales Duárez 24 March - 2 April 1812
José María Gutiérrez de Terán 24 April - 23 May 1812
José Miguel Guridi y Alcocer 24 May - 23 July 1812
Juan Polo y Catalina 23 – 24 July 1812
Felipe Vázquez Canga 24 July - 23 August 1812
Andrés Ángel de la Vega Infanzón 24 August - 23 September 1812
Andrés de Jáuregui 24 September - 23 October 1812
Francisco Morros 24 October - 23 November 1812
Juan de Valle 24 November - 23 December 1812
Francisco Ciscar y Ciscar 24 December 1812 - 23 January 1813
Miguel Antonio de Zumalacárregui e Imaz 24 January - 23 February 1813
Joaquín Maniau Torquemada 24 February - 23 March 1813
Francisco del Calello Miranda 24 March - 23 April 1813
Pedro José Gordillo y Ramos 24 April - 23 May 1813
Florencio del Castillo Solano 24 May - 23 July 1813
José Antonio Sombiela y Mestre 23 July 1813
Andrés Morales de los Ríos 23 July - 23 August 1813
José Miguel Gordoa y Barrios 24 August - 23 September 1813
Francisco Tacón Rossique 1 November de 1813 - 15 January 1814
Jeronimo Antonio Díez 16 January - 15 February 1814
Antonio Joaquín Pérez Martínez 16–23 February 1814
Vicente Ruiz Albillos 25 February - 31 March 1814
Francisco de la Dueña y Cisneros 1–30 April 1814
Antonio Joaquín Pérez Martínez 1–10 May 1814
Presidents of the Cortes of the Trienio Liberal (1820-1823)[edit]
Name Period Party
José de Espiga y Gadea 6 July - 9 August 1820
Ramón Giraldo y Arquellada 9 August - 8 September 1820
José María Queipo de Llano Ruiz de Saravia 9 September - 8 October 1820
José María Calatrava Peinado 9 October - 9 November 1820
Antonio Cano Manuel y Ramírez de Arellano 25 February - 31 March 1821
José María Gutiérrez de Terán 1–30 April 1821
Antonio de la Cuesta y Torre 1–31 May 1821
José María Moscoso de Altamira Quiroga 1–30 July 1821
Pedro González Vallejo 24 September - 27 October 1821
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa 28 November - 27 December 1821
Diego Clemencín Viñas 28 November - 27 December 1821
Joaquín Rey Esteve 28 December 1821 - 27 January 1822
Ramón Giraldo y Arquellada 28 January - 14 February 1822
Rafael del Riego Flórez 25 February - 31 March 1822
Cayetano Valdés y Flores Bazán y Peón 1–30 April 1822
Miguel Ricardo de Álava y Esquivel 1–31 May 1822
Álvaro Gómez Becerra 1–30 July 1822
Ramón Salvato de Esteve 3 October - 6 November 1822
Diego Vicente Cañas Portocarrero 7 November - 6 December 1822
Juan Oliver y García 7 December 1822 - 6 January 1823
Francisco Javier de Istúriz 7 January - 6 February 1823
Domingo María Ruiz de la Vega Méndez 7–19 February 1823
Manuel Flores Calderón 25 February - 22 March 1823
Joaquín María Ferrer y Cafranga 1 May - 1 July 1823
Tomás Gener 1 July - 6 de julio 1823
Juan Pedro Zulueta 7 de julio - 5 August 1823
Álvaro Gómez Becerra 7–27 September 1823
Presidents of the Estamento de Procuradores del Reino (1834-1836)[edit]
Name Period Party
Antonio Posada Rubín de Celis 20 July 1834 - 28 July 1834
Ildefonso Díez de Rivera y Muro 29 July 1834 - 29 May 1835
Francisco Javier Istúriz y Montero 12 November 1835 - 27 January 1836
17–22 March 1836
Antonio González González 23 March 1836 - 23 May 1836
Presidents of the Congress of Deputies (1836-1939)[edit]
Name Period Party
Álvaro Gómez Becerra 17 October 1836 - 30 November 1836
Antonio González González 1 December 1836 - 1 January 1837
Joaquín María Ferrer y Cafranga 2–31 January 1837
Miguel Antonio de Zumalacárregui e Imaz 1–28 February 1837
Ramón Salvato de Esteve 1–31 March 1837
Pedro Antonio Acuña y Cuadros 1 April 1837 - 30 April 1837
Martín de los Heros y de las Bárcenas 1–31 May 1837
Agustín Argüelles Álvarez González 1–30 July 1837
Vicente Sancho 1–31 July 1837
Miguel Calderón de la Barca 1-31 August 1837
Antonio Seoane Hoyos 1–30 September 1837
Juan Bautista Muguiro e Iribarren 1–31 October 1837
Joaquín María López y López 1-4 November 1837
Joaquín José de Muro y Vidaurreta 13 November 1837 - 1 January 1838
Manuel Barrio Ayuso 2–31 January 1838
Manuel de la Riva Herrera 1–15 February 1838
Manuel Barrio Ayuso 16 February - 17 July 1838
Francisco Javier Istúriz y Montero 9 November 1838 - 1 July 1839
Miguel Antonio de Zumalacárregui e Imaz 1–9 September 1839
José María Calatrava Peinado 10 September - 18 October 1839
Álvaro Flórez Estrada 18 February - 17 March 1840
Francisco Javier Istúriz y Montero 18 March - 11 October 1840
Román Martínez Montaos 19–27 March 1841
Agustín Argüelles Álvarez González 28 March 1841 - 24 August 1841
Pedro Antonio Acuña y Cuadros 27 December 1841 - 16 July 1842
Salustiano de Olózaga y Armandoz 15 November 1841 - 3 January 1843
Ramón Giraldo y Arquellada 3–30 April 1843
Manuel Cortina y Arenzana 30 April - 26 May 1843
Salustiano de Olózaga y Armandoz 4–26 November 1843
Pedro José Pidal y Carniado 27 November 1843 - 4 July 1844
Francisco de Paula Castro y Orozco 17 October 1844 - 23 May 1845
16 December 1845 - 31 October 1846
Modesto Cortázar Leal de Ibarra 1–20 January 1847
Francisco de Paula Castro y Orozco 21 January 1847 - 5 October 1847
Alejandro Mon y Menéndez 16 November 1847 - 26 March 1848
Manuel Seijas Lozano 16–19 December 1848
Luis Mayans y Enríquez de Navarra 20 December 1848 - 14 July 1849
30 October 1849 - 4 August 1850
1 November 1850 - 7 April 1851
1 July 1851 - 7 January 1852
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa 1–2 December 1852
1 March - 9 April 1853
19 November - 10 December 1853
Evaristo Fernández San Miguel y Valledor 10–27 November 1854
Baldomero Espartero 28 November - 4 December 1854
Pascual Madoz Ibáñez 5 December 1854 - 24 January 1855
Facundo Infante Chávez 25 January 1855 - 15 September 1856
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa 1 May - 16 July 1857
Juan Bravo Murillo January 11, 1858 – May 13, 1858
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa Berdejo Gómez y Arroyo December 2, 1858 – February 18, 1862
Diego López Ballesteros Pérez Santamaria December 2, 1862 – August 12, 1863
Antonio de los Ríos Rosas December 5, 1863 – June 23, 1864
Alejandro de Castro Casal December 23, 1864 – February 20, 1865
Martín Belda y Mencía del Barrio February 21, 1865 – March 7, 1865
Antonio de los Ríos Rosas December 28, 1865 – October 2, 1866
Martín Belda y Mencía del Barrio March 30, 1867 – December 3, 1867
Luis José y Tapia December 28, 1867 – December 3, 1868
Nicolás María Rivero February 12, 1869 – January 2, 1870
Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla January 17, 1870 – January 2, 1871
Salustiano de Olózaga y Arnandoz April 4, 1871 – October 2, 1871
Práxedes Mateo Sagasta y Escobar October 3, 1871 – January 6, 1872
Antonio de Los Ríos Rosas April 25, 1873 – June 28, 1872
Nicolás María Rivero September 26, 1872 – February 11, 1873
Cristino Martos Balbi February 12, 1873 – March 18, 1873
Francisco Salmerón y Alonso March 19, 1873 – March 22, 1873
José Maria Orense Milá de Aragón Herrero June 1, 1873 – June 12, 1873
Nicolás Salmerón y Alonso June 13, 1873 – August 24, 1873
Emilio Castelar y Ripoll August 25, 1873 – September 8, 1873
Nicolás Salmerón y Alonso September 9, 1873 – January 8, 1874
José Posada Herrera February 15, 1876 – January 28, 1878
Adelardo López de Ayala y Herrera February 15, 1878 – December 30, 1879
Francisco de Borja Queipo de Llano January 20, 1880 – June 25, 1881
José Posada Herrera September 20, 1881 – July 26, 1883
Práxedes Mateo Sagasta December 15, 1883 – March 31, 1884
Francisco de Borja Queipo de Llano May 20, 1884 – July 11, 1885
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo December 26, 1885 – March 8, 1886
Cristino Martos Balbi May 10, 1886 – June 3, 1889
Manuel Alonso Martínez June 14, 1889 – December 29, 1890
Alejandro Pidal y Mon March 2, 1891 – January 5, 1893
Antonio de Aguilar y Correa April 5, 1893 – July 1, 1895
Alejandro Pidal y Mon May 11, 1896 – February 26, 1898
Antonio de Aguilar y Correa April 20, 1898 – March 16, 1899
Alejandro Pidal y Mon June 6, 1899 – October 18, 1900
Raimundo Fernández Villaverde November 20, 1900 – April 25, 1901
Antonio de Aguilar y Correa June 6, 1901 – July 14, 1901
Segismundo Moret y Prendergast July 15, 1901 – April 24, 1902
Antonio de Aguilar y Correa April 3, 1902 – March 26, 1903
Raimundo Fernández Villaverde May 18, 1903 – September 12, 1903
Francisco Romero Robledo October 22, 1903 – August 17, 1905
Antonio Aguilar y Correa October 11, 1905 – March 30, 1907
José Canalejas y Méndez January 19, 1906 – March 30, 1907
Eduardo Dato Iradier May 13, 1907 – April 14, 1910
Álvaro de Figueroa y Torres June 15, 1910 – November 18, 1912
Segismundo Moret y Prendergast November 19, 1912 – January 28, 1913
Miguel Villanueva y Gómez May 27, 1913 – January 2, 1913
Augusto González Besada y Mein April 3, 1914 – March 16, 1916
Miguel Villanueva y Gómez May 29, 1916 – February 5, 1919
Juan Armada y Losada June 25, 1919 – July 27, 1919
José Sánches Guerra y Martínez July 28, 1919 – March 14, 1922
Gabino Bugallal Araújo March 15, 1922 – April 6, 1923
Melquiades Álvarez González Posada May 24, 1923 – September 15, 1923
José Maria de Yanguas y Messía[1] October 10, 1927 – July 6, 1929
Julián Besteiro Fernández July 14, 1931 – October 9, 1933 PSOE
Santiago Alba y Bonifaz December 8, 1933 – January 7, 1936 PRR
Diego Martínez Barrio March 16, 1936 – March 31, 1939 PRR
Presidents of the Cortes of the Francoist dictatorship (1943-1975)[edit]
Name Period Party
Esteban de Bilbao y Eguía March 16, 1943 – September 29, 1965 FET-JONS
Antonio Iturmendi Bañales September 30, 1965 – November 26, 1969 FET-JONS
Alejandro Rodríguez de Valcárcel y Nebreda November 27, 1969 – December 5, 1975 FET-JONS
Presidents of the Francoist Cortes under the new King Juan Carlos I; transition towards democracy (1975-1977)[edit]
Name Period Party
Torcuato Fernández-Miranda y Hevia December 6, 1975 – June 16, 1977 FET-JONS
Presidents of the Cortes - redemocratization period; freely elected Cortes empowered to draft the Constitution (1977-197[edit]
Name Period Party
Antonio Hernández Gil June 16, 1977 – December 29, 1978 Independent
Presidents of the Congress of Deputies[edit]
Legislature Name Period Party
Legislativa Constituyente Fernando Álvarez de Miranda[2] July 13, 1977 – March 22, 1979 UCD
Legislativa I 1979-1982 [3] Landelino Lavilla Alsina March 23, 1979 – November 17, 1982 UCD
Legislativa II 1982-1986 Gregorio Peces-Barba Martínez November 18, 1982 – July 15, 1986 PSOE
Legislativa III 1986-1989 Fèlix Pons Irrazazábal July 15, 1986 – November 20, 1989 PSOE
Legislativa IV 1989-1993 Fèlix Pons Irrazazábal November 21, 1989 – June 28, 1993 PSOE
Legislativa V 1993-1996 Fèlix Pons Irrazazábal June 29, 1993 – March 26, 1996 PSOE
Legislativa VI 1996-2000 Federico Trillo-Figueroa Martínez-Conde March 27, 1996 – April 4, 2000 PP
Legislativa VII 2000-2004 Luisa Fernanda Rudi Ubeda April 5, 2000 – January 19, 2004 PP
Legislativa VIII 2004-2008 Manuel Marín González April 8, 2004 – March 31, 2008 PSOE
Legislativa IX 2008-2011 José Bono Martínez April 1, 2008 – December 13, 2011 PSOE
Legislativa X 2011-2016 Jesús Posada Moreno December 13, 2011 – January 13, 2016 PP
Legislativa XI 2016-May 2016 Francisco Javier "Patxi" López Álvarez January 13, 2016 – Incumbent PSOE
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
List of Presidents of the Congress of Deputies of Spain.
Contents [hide]
1 Presidents of the Cortes de Cadiz (1810-1814)
2 Presidents of the Cortes of the Trienio Liberal (1820-1823)
3 Presidents of the Estamento de Procuradores del Reino (1834-1836)
4 Presidents of the Congress of Deputies (1836-1939)
5 Presidents of the Cortes of the Francoist dictatorship (1943-1975)
6 Presidents of the Francoist Cortes under the new King Juan Carlos I; transition towards democracy (1975-1977)
7 Presidents of the Cortes - redemocratization period; freely elected Cortes empowered to draft the Constitution (1977-197
8 Presidents of the Congress of Deputies
9 Footnotes
10 Sources
Presidents of the Cortes de Cadiz (1810-1814)[edit]
Name Period Party
Benito Ramón Hermida Maldonado 24 September 1810
Ramón Lázaro de Dou y de Bassols 24 September - 23 October 1810
Luis Rodríguez del Monte 24 October - 23 November 1810
José Luis Morales Gallego 24 November - 23 December 1810
Alonso Cañedo Vigil 24 December 1810 - 23 January 1811
Antonio Joaquín Pérez Martínez 24 January - 23 February 1811
Vicente Noguera Climent 24 February - 23 March 1811
Diego Muñoz Torrero 24 March - 23 April 1811
Vicente Cano Manuel y Ramírez de Arellano 24 April - 23 May 1811
José Pablo Valiente y Bravo 24 May - 23 July 1811
Jaime Creus Martí 23 July – 24 July 1811
Juan José Guereña y Garayo 24 July - 23 August 1811
Ramón Giraldo y Arquellada 24 August - 23 September 1811
Bernardo Nadal Crespí 24 September - 23 October 1811
Antonio Larrazábal y Arrivillaga 24 October - 23 November 1811
José Casquete de Prado 24 November - 23 December 1811
Manuel de Villafañe y Andreu 24 December 1811 - 23 January 1812
Antonio Payán de Tejada y Figueroa 24 January - 23 February 1812
Vicente Pascual y Esteban 24 February - 23 March 1812
Vicente Morales Duárez 24 March - 2 April 1812
José María Gutiérrez de Terán 24 April - 23 May 1812
José Miguel Guridi y Alcocer 24 May - 23 July 1812
Juan Polo y Catalina 23 – 24 July 1812
Felipe Vázquez Canga 24 July - 23 August 1812
Andrés Ángel de la Vega Infanzón 24 August - 23 September 1812
Andrés de Jáuregui 24 September - 23 October 1812
Francisco Morros 24 October - 23 November 1812
Juan de Valle 24 November - 23 December 1812
Francisco Ciscar y Ciscar 24 December 1812 - 23 January 1813
Miguel Antonio de Zumalacárregui e Imaz 24 January - 23 February 1813
Joaquín Maniau Torquemada 24 February - 23 March 1813
Francisco del Calello Miranda 24 March - 23 April 1813
Pedro José Gordillo y Ramos 24 April - 23 May 1813
Florencio del Castillo Solano 24 May - 23 July 1813
José Antonio Sombiela y Mestre 23 July 1813
Andrés Morales de los Ríos 23 July - 23 August 1813
José Miguel Gordoa y Barrios 24 August - 23 September 1813
Francisco Tacón Rossique 1 November de 1813 - 15 January 1814
Jeronimo Antonio Díez 16 January - 15 February 1814
Antonio Joaquín Pérez Martínez 16–23 February 1814
Vicente Ruiz Albillos 25 February - 31 March 1814
Francisco de la Dueña y Cisneros 1–30 April 1814
Antonio Joaquín Pérez Martínez 1–10 May 1814
Presidents of the Cortes of the Trienio Liberal (1820-1823)[edit]
Name Period Party
José de Espiga y Gadea 6 July - 9 August 1820
Ramón Giraldo y Arquellada 9 August - 8 September 1820
José María Queipo de Llano Ruiz de Saravia 9 September - 8 October 1820
José María Calatrava Peinado 9 October - 9 November 1820
Antonio Cano Manuel y Ramírez de Arellano 25 February - 31 March 1821
José María Gutiérrez de Terán 1–30 April 1821
Antonio de la Cuesta y Torre 1–31 May 1821
José María Moscoso de Altamira Quiroga 1–30 July 1821
Pedro González Vallejo 24 September - 27 October 1821
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa 28 November - 27 December 1821
Diego Clemencín Viñas 28 November - 27 December 1821
Joaquín Rey Esteve 28 December 1821 - 27 January 1822
Ramón Giraldo y Arquellada 28 January - 14 February 1822
Rafael del Riego Flórez 25 February - 31 March 1822
Cayetano Valdés y Flores Bazán y Peón 1–30 April 1822
Miguel Ricardo de Álava y Esquivel 1–31 May 1822
Álvaro Gómez Becerra 1–30 July 1822
Ramón Salvato de Esteve 3 October - 6 November 1822
Diego Vicente Cañas Portocarrero 7 November - 6 December 1822
Juan Oliver y García 7 December 1822 - 6 January 1823
Francisco Javier de Istúriz 7 January - 6 February 1823
Domingo María Ruiz de la Vega Méndez 7–19 February 1823
Manuel Flores Calderón 25 February - 22 March 1823
Joaquín María Ferrer y Cafranga 1 May - 1 July 1823
Tomás Gener 1 July - 6 de julio 1823
Juan Pedro Zulueta 7 de julio - 5 August 1823
Álvaro Gómez Becerra 7–27 September 1823
Presidents of the Estamento de Procuradores del Reino (1834-1836)[edit]
Name Period Party
Antonio Posada Rubín de Celis 20 July 1834 - 28 July 1834
Ildefonso Díez de Rivera y Muro 29 July 1834 - 29 May 1835
Francisco Javier Istúriz y Montero 12 November 1835 - 27 January 1836
17–22 March 1836
Antonio González González 23 March 1836 - 23 May 1836
Presidents of the Congress of Deputies (1836-1939)[edit]
Name Period Party
Álvaro Gómez Becerra 17 October 1836 - 30 November 1836
Antonio González González 1 December 1836 - 1 January 1837
Joaquín María Ferrer y Cafranga 2–31 January 1837
Miguel Antonio de Zumalacárregui e Imaz 1–28 February 1837
Ramón Salvato de Esteve 1–31 March 1837
Pedro Antonio Acuña y Cuadros 1 April 1837 - 30 April 1837
Martín de los Heros y de las Bárcenas 1–31 May 1837
Agustín Argüelles Álvarez González 1–30 July 1837
Vicente Sancho 1–31 July 1837
Miguel Calderón de la Barca 1-31 August 1837
Antonio Seoane Hoyos 1–30 September 1837
Juan Bautista Muguiro e Iribarren 1–31 October 1837
Joaquín María López y López 1-4 November 1837
Joaquín José de Muro y Vidaurreta 13 November 1837 - 1 January 1838
Manuel Barrio Ayuso 2–31 January 1838
Manuel de la Riva Herrera 1–15 February 1838
Manuel Barrio Ayuso 16 February - 17 July 1838
Francisco Javier Istúriz y Montero 9 November 1838 - 1 July 1839
Miguel Antonio de Zumalacárregui e Imaz 1–9 September 1839
José María Calatrava Peinado 10 September - 18 October 1839
Álvaro Flórez Estrada 18 February - 17 March 1840
Francisco Javier Istúriz y Montero 18 March - 11 October 1840
Román Martínez Montaos 19–27 March 1841
Agustín Argüelles Álvarez González 28 March 1841 - 24 August 1841
Pedro Antonio Acuña y Cuadros 27 December 1841 - 16 July 1842
Salustiano de Olózaga y Armandoz 15 November 1841 - 3 January 1843
Ramón Giraldo y Arquellada 3–30 April 1843
Manuel Cortina y Arenzana 30 April - 26 May 1843
Salustiano de Olózaga y Armandoz 4–26 November 1843
Pedro José Pidal y Carniado 27 November 1843 - 4 July 1844
Francisco de Paula Castro y Orozco 17 October 1844 - 23 May 1845
16 December 1845 - 31 October 1846
Modesto Cortázar Leal de Ibarra 1–20 January 1847
Francisco de Paula Castro y Orozco 21 January 1847 - 5 October 1847
Alejandro Mon y Menéndez 16 November 1847 - 26 March 1848
Manuel Seijas Lozano 16–19 December 1848
Luis Mayans y Enríquez de Navarra 20 December 1848 - 14 July 1849
30 October 1849 - 4 August 1850
1 November 1850 - 7 April 1851
1 July 1851 - 7 January 1852
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa 1–2 December 1852
1 March - 9 April 1853
19 November - 10 December 1853
Evaristo Fernández San Miguel y Valledor 10–27 November 1854
Baldomero Espartero 28 November - 4 December 1854
Pascual Madoz Ibáñez 5 December 1854 - 24 January 1855
Facundo Infante Chávez 25 January 1855 - 15 September 1856
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa 1 May - 16 July 1857
Juan Bravo Murillo January 11, 1858 – May 13, 1858
Francisco Martínez de la Rosa Berdejo Gómez y Arroyo December 2, 1858 – February 18, 1862
Diego López Ballesteros Pérez Santamaria December 2, 1862 – August 12, 1863
Antonio de los Ríos Rosas December 5, 1863 – June 23, 1864
Alejandro de Castro Casal December 23, 1864 – February 20, 1865
Martín Belda y Mencía del Barrio February 21, 1865 – March 7, 1865
Antonio de los Ríos Rosas December 28, 1865 – October 2, 1866
Martín Belda y Mencía del Barrio March 30, 1867 – December 3, 1867
Luis José y Tapia December 28, 1867 – December 3, 1868
Nicolás María Rivero February 12, 1869 – January 2, 1870
Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla January 17, 1870 – January 2, 1871
Salustiano de Olózaga y Arnandoz April 4, 1871 – October 2, 1871
Práxedes Mateo Sagasta y Escobar October 3, 1871 – January 6, 1872
Antonio de Los Ríos Rosas April 25, 1873 – June 28, 1872
Nicolás María Rivero September 26, 1872 – February 11, 1873
Cristino Martos Balbi February 12, 1873 – March 18, 1873
Francisco Salmerón y Alonso March 19, 1873 – March 22, 1873
José Maria Orense Milá de Aragón Herrero June 1, 1873 – June 12, 1873
Nicolás Salmerón y Alonso June 13, 1873 – August 24, 1873
Emilio Castelar y Ripoll August 25, 1873 – September 8, 1873
Nicolás Salmerón y Alonso September 9, 1873 – January 8, 1874
José Posada Herrera February 15, 1876 – January 28, 1878
Adelardo López de Ayala y Herrera February 15, 1878 – December 30, 1879
Francisco de Borja Queipo de Llano January 20, 1880 – June 25, 1881
José Posada Herrera September 20, 1881 – July 26, 1883
Práxedes Mateo Sagasta December 15, 1883 – March 31, 1884
Francisco de Borja Queipo de Llano May 20, 1884 – July 11, 1885
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo December 26, 1885 – March 8, 1886
Cristino Martos Balbi May 10, 1886 – June 3, 1889
Manuel Alonso Martínez June 14, 1889 – December 29, 1890
Alejandro Pidal y Mon March 2, 1891 – January 5, 1893
Antonio de Aguilar y Correa April 5, 1893 – July 1, 1895
Alejandro Pidal y Mon May 11, 1896 – February 26, 1898
Antonio de Aguilar y Correa April 20, 1898 – March 16, 1899
Alejandro Pidal y Mon June 6, 1899 – October 18, 1900
Raimundo Fernández Villaverde November 20, 1900 – April 25, 1901
Antonio de Aguilar y Correa June 6, 1901 – July 14, 1901
Segismundo Moret y Prendergast July 15, 1901 – April 24, 1902
Antonio de Aguilar y Correa April 3, 1902 – March 26, 1903
Raimundo Fernández Villaverde May 18, 1903 – September 12, 1903
Francisco Romero Robledo October 22, 1903 – August 17, 1905
Antonio Aguilar y Correa October 11, 1905 – March 30, 1907
José Canalejas y Méndez January 19, 1906 – March 30, 1907
Eduardo Dato Iradier May 13, 1907 – April 14, 1910
Álvaro de Figueroa y Torres June 15, 1910 – November 18, 1912
Segismundo Moret y Prendergast November 19, 1912 – January 28, 1913
Miguel Villanueva y Gómez May 27, 1913 – January 2, 1913
Augusto González Besada y Mein April 3, 1914 – March 16, 1916
Miguel Villanueva y Gómez May 29, 1916 – February 5, 1919
Juan Armada y Losada June 25, 1919 – July 27, 1919
José Sánches Guerra y Martínez July 28, 1919 – March 14, 1922
Gabino Bugallal Araújo March 15, 1922 – April 6, 1923
Melquiades Álvarez González Posada May 24, 1923 – September 15, 1923
José Maria de Yanguas y Messía[1] October 10, 1927 – July 6, 1929
Julián Besteiro Fernández July 14, 1931 – October 9, 1933 PSOE
Santiago Alba y Bonifaz December 8, 1933 – January 7, 1936 PRR
Diego Martínez Barrio March 16, 1936 – March 31, 1939 PRR
Presidents of the Cortes of the Francoist dictatorship (1943-1975)[edit]
Name Period Party
Esteban de Bilbao y Eguía March 16, 1943 – September 29, 1965 FET-JONS
Antonio Iturmendi Bañales September 30, 1965 – November 26, 1969 FET-JONS
Alejandro Rodríguez de Valcárcel y Nebreda November 27, 1969 – December 5, 1975 FET-JONS
Presidents of the Francoist Cortes under the new King Juan Carlos I; transition towards democracy (1975-1977)[edit]
Name Period Party
Torcuato Fernández-Miranda y Hevia December 6, 1975 – June 16, 1977 FET-JONS
Presidents of the Cortes - redemocratization period; freely elected Cortes empowered to draft the Constitution (1977-197
[edit]Name Period Party
Antonio Hernández Gil June 16, 1977 – December 29, 1978 Independent
Presidents of the Congress of Deputies[edit]
Legislature Name Period Party
Legislativa Constituyente Fernando Álvarez de Miranda[2] July 13, 1977 – March 22, 1979 UCD
Legislativa I 1979-1982 [3] Landelino Lavilla Alsina March 23, 1979 – November 17, 1982 UCD
Legislativa II 1982-1986 Gregorio Peces-Barba Martínez November 18, 1982 – July 15, 1986 PSOE
Legislativa III 1986-1989 Fèlix Pons Irrazazábal July 15, 1986 – November 20, 1989 PSOE
Legislativa IV 1989-1993 Fèlix Pons Irrazazábal November 21, 1989 – June 28, 1993 PSOE
Legislativa V 1993-1996 Fèlix Pons Irrazazábal June 29, 1993 – March 26, 1996 PSOE
Legislativa VI 1996-2000 Federico Trillo-Figueroa Martínez-Conde March 27, 1996 – April 4, 2000 PP
Legislativa VII 2000-2004 Luisa Fernanda Rudi Ubeda April 5, 2000 – January 19, 2004 PP
Legislativa VIII 2004-2008 Manuel Marín González April 8, 2004 – March 31, 2008 PSOE
Legislativa IX 2008-2011 José Bono Martínez April 1, 2008 – December 13, 2011 PSOE
Legislativa X 2011-2016 Jesús Posada Moreno December 13, 2011 – January 13, 2016 PP
Legislativa XI 2016-May 2016 Francisco Javier "Patxi" López Álvarez January 13, 2016 – Incumbent PSOE
Aimlessly swimming in circumcisions
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.
This is a list of articles about numbers (not about numerals).
Contents [hide]
1 Rational numbers
1.1 Natural numbers
1.2 Powers of ten (scientific notation)
1.3 Integers
1.3.1 Notable integers
1.3.2 Named numbers
1.4 Prime numbers
1.5 Highly composite numbers
1.6 Perfect numbers
1.7 Cardinal numbers
1.7.1 Small numbers
1.7.2 English names for powers of 10
1.7.3 Proposed systematic names for powers of 10
1.7.3.1 Myriad system
1.7.3.2 SI-derived
1.8 Fractional numbers
2 Irrational and suspected irrational numbers
2.1 Algebraic numbers
2.2 Transcendental numbers
2.2.1 Suspected transcendentals
2.3 Numbers not known with high precision
3 Hypercomplex numbers
3.1 Algebraic complex numbers
3.2 Other hypercomplex numbers
4 Transfinite numbers
5 Numbers representing measured quantities
6 Numbers representing physical quantities
7 Numbers without specific values
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Further reading
11 External links
Rational numbers[edit]
Main article: Rational number
Natural numbers[edit]
Main article: Natural number
(Notice: In set theory and computer science, 0 is a natural number)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119
120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139
140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149
150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159
160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169
170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179
180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189
190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199
200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209
210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219
220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229
230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239
240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249
250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259
260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269
270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279
280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289
290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000
105 106 107 108 109
10100 1010100 Larger numbers
Powers of ten (scientific notation)[edit]
Main article: Orders of magnitude (numbers)
Integers[edit]
Main article: Integer
Notable integers[edit]
Other numbers that are notable for their mathematical properties or cultural meanings include:
−40, the equal point in the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.
−1, the additive inverse of unity.
0, the additive identity.
1, the multiplicative identity.
2, the base of the binary number system, used in almost all modern computers and information systems. Also notable as the only even prime number.
3, is significant in Christianity as the Trinity
4, the first composite number, also considered an "unlucky number" in modern China due to its audible similarity to the word "Death."
6, the first of the series of perfect numbers, whose proper factors sum to the number itself.
7, considered a "lucky" number in Western cultures.
8, considered a "lucky" number in Chinese culture.
9, the first odd number that is not prime nor a unit.
10, the number base for most modern counting systems.
12, the number base for some ancient counting systems and the basis for some modern measuring systems. Known as a dozen.
13, considered an "unlucky" number in Western superstition. Also known as a "Baker's Dozen"
28, the second perfect number.
42, the "answer to the ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything" in the popular science fiction work The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
60, the number base for some ancient counting systems, such as the Babylonians', and the basis for many modern measuring systems.
86, a slang term that is used in the American popular culture as a transitive verb to mean throw out or get rid of.[1]
144, a dozen times dozen, known as a gross.
255, 28 − 1, a Mersenne number and the smallest perfect totient number that is neither a power of three nor thrice a prime; it is also the largest number that can be represented using an 8-bit unsigned integer.
496, the third perfect number.
786, regarded as sacred in the Muslim Abjad numerology.
1729, a taxicab number; the smallest positive integer that can be written as the sum of two positive cubes in two different ways; also known as the Hardy-Ramanujan number.[2]
5040, mentioned by Plato in the Laws as one of the most important numbers for the city. It is also the largest factorial (7! = 5040) that is also a highly composite number.
65535, 216 − 1, the maximum value of a 16-bit unsigned integer.
142857, the smallest base 10 cyclic number.
8675309, Jenny's Number from Tommy Tutone's song 867-5309/Jenny
2147483647, 231 − 1, the maximum value of a 32-bit signed integer using two's complement representation.
9814072356, the largest perfect power that contains no repeated digits in base ten.
9223372036854775807, 263 − 1, the maximum value of a 64-bit signed integer using two's complement representation.
Named numbers[edit]
Googol (10100) and googolplex (1010100)
Graham's number
Moser's number
Shannon number
Hardy–Ramanujan number (1729)
Skewes' number
Kaprekar's constant (6174)
Prime numbers[edit]
Main article: Prime numbers
A prime number is a positive integer which has exactly two divisors: 1 and itself.
The first 100 prime numbers are:
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71
73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113
127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173
179 181 191 193 197 199 211 223 227 229
233 239 241 251 257 263 269 271 277 281
283 293 307 311 313 317 331 337 347 349
353 359 367 373 379 383 389 397 401 409
419 421 431 433 439 443 449 457 461 463
467 479 487 491 499 503 509 521 523 541
Highly composite numbers[edit]
Main article: Highly composite number
A highly composite number (HCN) is a positive integer with more divisors than any smaller positive integer. They are often used in geometry, grouping and time measurement.
The first 20 highly composite numbers are:
1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 120, 180, 240, 360, 720, 840, 1260, 1680, 2520, 5040, 7560.
Perfect numbers[edit]
Main article: Perfect number
A perfect number is an integer that is the sum of its positive proper divisors (all divisors except itself).
The first 10 perfect numbers:
1 6
2 28
3 496
4 8 128
5 33 550 336
6 8 589 869 056
7 137 438 691 328
8 2 305 843 008 139 952 128
9 2 658 455 991 569 831 744 654 692 615 953 842 176
10 191 561 942 608 236 107 294 793 378 084 303 638 130 997 321 548 169 216
Cardinal numbers[edit]
Main article: cardinal number
In the following tables, [and] indicates that the word and is used in some dialects (such as British English), and omitted in other dialects (such as American English).
Small numbers[edit]
This table demonstrates the standard English construction of small cardinal numbers up to one hundred million—names for which all variants of English agree.
Value Name Alternate names, and names for sets of the given size
0 Zero aught, cipher, cypher, donut, duck, goose egg, love, nada, naught, nil, none, nought, nowt, null, ought, oh, squat, zed, zilch, zip, zippo
1 One ace, individual, single, singleton, unary, unit, unity
2 Two binary, brace, couple, couplet, distich, deuce, double, doubleton, duad, duality, duet, duo, dyad, pair, span, twain, twin, twosome, yoke
3 Three deuce-ace, leash, set, tercet, ternary, ternion, terzetto, threesome, tierce, trey, triad, trine, trinity, trio, triplet, troika, hat-trick
4 Four foursome, quadruplet, quatern, quaternary, quaternity, quartet, tetrad
5 Five cinque, fin, fivesome, pentad, quint, quintet, quintuplet
6 Six half dozen, hexad, sestet, sextet, sextuplet, sise
7 Seven heptad, septet, septuple
8 Eight octad, octave, octet, octonary, octuplet, ogdoad
9 Nine ennead
10 Ten deca, decade
11 Eleven onze, ounze, ounce, banker's dozen
12 Twelve dozen
13 Thirteen baker's dozen, long dozen[3]
14 Fourteen
15 Fifteen
16 Sixteen
17 Seventeen
18 Eighteen
19 Nineteen
20 Twenty score
21 Twenty-one long score[3]
22 Twenty-two Deuce-deuce
23 Twenty-three
24 Twenty-four two dozen
25 Twenty-five
26 Twenty-six
27 Twenty-seven
28 Twenty-eight
29 Twenty-nine
30 Thirty
31 Thirty-one
32 Thirty-two
40 Forty two-score
50 Fifty half-century
60 Sixty three-score
70 Seventy three-score and ten
80 Eighty four-score
87 Eighty-seven four-score and seven
90 Ninety four-score and ten
100 One hundred centred, century, ton, short hundred
101 One hundred [and] one
110 One hundred [and] ten
111 One hundred [and] eleven
120 One hundred [and] twenty long hundred,[3] great hundred, (obsolete) hundred
121 One hundred [and] twenty-one
144 One hundred [and] forty-four gross, dozen dozen, small gross
200 Two hundred
300 Three hundred
400 Four hundred
500 Five hundred
600 Six hundred
666 Six hundred [and] sixty-six
700 Seven hundred
777 Seven hundred [and] seventy-seven Number of Luck
800 Eight hundred
900 Nine hundred
1000 One thousand chiliad, grand, G, thou, yard, kilo, k, millennium
1001 One thousand [and] one
1010 One thousand [and] ten
1011 One thousand [and] eleven
1024 One thousand [and] twenty-four kibi or kilo in computing, see binary prefix (kilo is shortened to K, Kibi to Ki)
1100 One thousand one hundred Eleven hundred
1101 One thousand one hundred [and] one
1728 One thousand seven hundred [and] twenty-eight great gross, long gross, dozen gross
2000 Two thousand
3000 Three thousand
10000 Ten thousand myriad, wan (China)
100000 One hundred thousand lakh
500000 Five hundred thousand crore (Iranian)
1000000 One million Mega, meg, mil, (often shortened to M)
1048576 One million forty-eight thousand five hundred [and] seventy-six Mibi or Mega in computing, see binary prefix (Mega is shortened to M, Mibi to Mi)
10000000 Ten million crore (Indian)(Pakistan)
100000000 One hundred million yi (China)
English names for powers of 10[edit]
This table compares the English names of cardinal numbers according to various American, British, and Continental European conventions. See English numerals or names of large numbers for more information on naming numbers.
Short scale Long scale Power
Value American British
(Nicolas Chuquet) Continental European
(Jacques Peletier du Mans) of a thousand of a million
100 One 1000−1+1 10000000
101 Ten
102 Hundred
103 Thousand 10000+1 10000000.5
106 Million 10001+1 10000001
109 Billion Thousand million Milliard 10002+1 10000001.5
1012 Trillion Billion 10003+1 10000002
1015 Quadrillion Thousand billion Billiard 10004+1 10000002.5
1018 Quintillion Trillion 10005+1 10000003
1021 Sextillion Thousand trillion Trilliard 10006+1 10000003.5
1024 Septillion Quadrillion 10007+1 10000004
1027 Octillion Thousand quadrillion Quadrilliard 10008+1 10000004.5
1030 Nonillion Quintillion 10009+1 10000005
1033 Decillion Thousand quintillion Quintilliard 100010+1 10000005.5
1036 Undecillion Sextillion 100011+1 10000006
1039 Duodecillion Thousand sextillion Sextilliard 100012+1 10000006.5
1042 Tredecillion Septillion 100013+1 10000007
1045 Quattuordecillion Thousand septillion Septilliard 100014+1 10000007.5
1048 Quindecillion Octillion 100015+1 10000008
1051 Sexdecillion Thousand octillion Octilliard 100016+1 10000008.5
1054 Septendecillion Nonillion 100017+1 10000009
1057 Octodecillion Thousand nonillion Nonilliard 100018+1 10000009.5
1060 Novemdecillion Decillion 100019+1 100000010
1063 Vigintillion Thousand decillion Decilliard 100020+1 100000010.5
1066 Unvigintillion Undecillion 100021+1 100000011
1069 Duovigintillion Thousand undecillion Undecilliard 100022+1 100000011.5
1072 Trevigintillion Duodecillion 100023+1 100000012
1075 Quattuorvigintillion Thousand duodecillion Duodecilliard 100024+1 100000012.5
1078 Quinvigintillion Tredecillion 100025+1 100000013
1081 Sexvigintillion Thousand tredecillion Tredecilliard 100026+1 100000013.5
1084 Septenvigintillion Quattuordecillion 100027+1 100000014
1087 Octavigintillion Thousand quattuordecillion Quattuordecilliard 100028+1 100000014.5
1090 Novemvigintillion Quindecillion 100029+1 100000015
1093 Trigintillion Thousand quindecillion Quindecilliard 100030+1 100000015.5
... ... ... ... ...
10120 Novemtrigintillion Vigintillion 100039+1 100000020
10123 Quadragintillion Thousand vigintillion Vigintilliard 100040+1 100000020.5
... ... ... ... ...
10153 Quinquagintillion Thousand quinvigintillion Quinvigintilliard 100050+1 100000025.5
... ... ... ... ...
10180 Novemquinquagintillion Trigintillion 100059+1 100000030
10183 Sexagintillion Thousand trigintillion Trigintilliard 100060+1 100000030.5
... ... ... ... ...
10213 Septuagintillion Thousand quintrigintillion Quintrigintilliard 100070+1 100000035.5
... ... ... ... ...
10240 Novemseptuagintillion Quadragintillion 100079+1 100000040
10243 Octogintillion Thousand quadragintillion Quadragintilliard 100080+1 100000040.5
... ... ... ... ...
10273 Nonagintillion Thousand quinquadragintillion Quinquadragintilliard 100090+1 100000045.5
... ... ... ... ...
10300 Novemnonagintillion Quinquagintillion 100099+1 100000050
10303 Centillion Thousand quinquagintillion Quinquagintilliard 1000100+1 100000050.5
... ... ... ... ...
10360 Cennovemdecillion Sexagintillion 1000119+1 100000060
10420 Cennovemtrigintillion Septuagintillion 1000139+1 100000070
10480 Cennovemquinquagintillion Octogintillion 1000159+1 100000080
10540 Cennovemseptuagintillion Nonagintillion 1000179+1 100000090
10600 Cennovemnonagintillion Centillion 1000199+1 1000000100
10603 Ducentillion Thousand centillion Centilliard 1000200+1 1000000100.5
There is no consistent and widely accepted way to extend cardinals beyond centillion (centilliard).
Proposed systematic names for powers of 10[edit]
Myriad system[edit]
Proposed by Donald E. Knuth:
Value Name Notation
100 One 1
101 Ten 10
102 Hundred 100
103 Ten hundred 1000
104 Myriad 1,0000
105 Ten myriad 10,0000
106 Hundred myriad 100,0000
107 Ten hundred myriad 1000,0000
108 Myllion 1;0000,0000
1012 Myriad myllion 1,0000;0000,0000
1016 Byllion 1:0000,0000;0000,0000
1024 Myllion byllion 1;0000,0000:0000,0000;0000,0000
1032 Tryllion 1'0000,0000;0000,0000:0000,0000;0000,0000
1064 Quadryllion 1"0000,0000;0000,0000:0000,0000;0000,0000'0000,000 0;0000,0000:0000,0000;0000,0000
10128 Quintyllion
10256 Sextyllion
10512 Septyllion
101,024 Octyllion
102,048 Nonyllion
104,096 Decyllion
108,192 Undecyllion
1016,384 Duodecyllion
1032,768 Tredecyllion
1065,536 Quattuordecyllion
10131,072 Quindecyllion
10262,144 Sexdecyllion
10524,288 Septendecyllion
101,048,576 Octodecyllion
102,097,152 Novemdecyllion
10222 Vigintyllion
10232 Trigintyllion
10242 Quadragintyllion
10252 Quinquagintyllion
10262 Sexagintyllion
10272 Septuagintyllion
10282 Octogintyllion
10292 Nonagintyllion
102102 Centyllion
1021,002 Millyllion
10210,002 Myryllion
SI-derived[edit]
Value 1000m SI prefix Name Binary prefix 1024m=210m Value
1000 10001 k Kilo Ki 10241 1 024
1000000 10002 M Mega Mi 10242 1 048 576
1000000000 10003 G Giga Gi 10243 1 073 741 824
1000000000000 10004 T Tera Ti 10244 1 099 511 627 776
1000000000000000 10005 P Peta Pi 10245 1 125 899 906 842 624
1000000000000000000 10006 E Exa Ei 10246 1 152 921 504 606 846 976
1000000000000000000000 10007 Z Zetta Zi 10247 1 180 591 620 717 411 303 424
1000000000000000000000000 10008 Y Yotta Yi 10248 1 208 925 819 614 629 174 706 176
Fractional numbers[edit]
Main article: Fraction (mathematics)
This is a table of English names for non-negative rational numbers less than or equal to 1. It also lists alternative names, but there is no widespread convention for the names of extremely small positive numbers.
Keep in mind that rational numbers like 0.12 can be represented in infinitely many ways, e.g. zero-point-one-two (0.12), twelve percent (12%), three twenty-fifths (
3
/
25
), nine seventy-fifths (
9
/
75
), six fiftieths (
6
/
50
), twelve hundredths (
12
/
100
, twenty-four two-hundredths (
24
/
200
), etc.
Value Fraction Common names Alternative names
1
1
/
1
One 0.999..., Unity
0.9
9
/
10
Nine tenths, [zero] point nine
0.8
4
/
5
Four fifths, eight tenths, [zero] point eight
0.7
7
/
10
Seven tenths, [zero] point seven
0.6
3
/
5
Three fifths, six tenths, [zero] point six
0.5
1
/
2
One half, five tenths, [zero] point five
0.4
2
/
5
Two fifths, four tenths, [zero] point four
0.333333...
1
/
3
One third
0.3
3
/
10
Three tenths, [zero] point three
0.25
1
/
4
One quarter, one fourth, twenty-five hundredths, [zero] point two five
0.2
1
/
5
One fifth, two tenths, [zero] point two
0.166666...
1
/
6
One sixth
0.142857142857...
1
/
7
One seventh
0.125
1
/
8
One eighth, one-hundred-[and-]twenty-five thousandths, [zero] point one two five
0.111111...
1
/
9
One ninth
0.1
1
/
10
One tenth, [zero] point one One perdecime, one perdime
0.090909...
1
/
11
One eleventh
0.09
9
/
100
Nine hundredths, [zero] point zero nine
0.083333...
1
/
12
One twelfth
0.08
2
/
25
Two twenty-fifths, eight hundredths, [zero] point zero eight
0.0625
1
/
16
One sixteenth, six-hundred-[and-]twenty-five ten-thousandths, [zero] point zero six two five
0.05
1
/
20
One twentieth, [zero] point zero five
0.047619047619...
1
/
21
One twenty-first
0.045454545...
1
/
22
One twenty-second
0.043478260869565217391304347...
1
/
23
One twenty-third
0.033333...
1
/
30
One thirtieth
0.016666...
1
/
60
One sixtieth One minute
0.012345679012345679...
1
/
81
One eighty-first
0.01
1
/
100
One hundredth, [zero] point zero one One percent
0.001
1
/
1000
One thousandth, [zero] point zero zero one One permille
0.000277777...
1
/
3600
One thirty-six hundredth One second
0.0001
1
/
10000
One ten-thousandth, [zero] point zero zero zero one One myriadth, one permyria, one permyriad, one basis point
0.00001
1
/
100000
One hundred-thousandth One lakhth, one perlakh
0.000001
1
/
1000000
One millionth One perion, one ppm
0.0000001
1
/
10000000
One ten-millionth One crorth, one percrore
0.00000001
1
/
100000000
One hundred-millionth One awkth, one perawk
0.000000001
1
/
1000000000
One billionth (in some dialects) One ppb
0
0
/
1
Zero Nil
Irrational and suspected irrational numbers[edit]
Main article: irrational number
Algebraic numbers[edit]
Main article: Algebraic number
Expression Approximate value Notes
√3
/
4
0.433012701892219323381861585376 Area of an equilateral triangle with side length 1.
√5 − 1
/
2
0.618033988749894848204586834366 Golden ratio conjugate Φ, reciprocal of and one less than the golden ratio.
√3
/
2
0.866025403784438646763723170753 Height of an equilateral triangle with side length 1.
12√2 1.059463094359295264561825294946 Twelfth root of two.
Proportion between the frequencies of adjacent semitones in the equal temperament scale.
3√2
/
4
1.060660171779821286601266543157 The size of the cube that satisfies Prince Rupert's cube.
3√2 1.259921049894873164767210607278 Cube root of two.
Length of the edge of a cube with volume two. See doubling the cube for the significance of this number.
— 1.303577269034296391257099112153 Conway's constant, defined as the unique positive real root of a certain polynomial of degree 71.
{\displaystyle {\sqrt[{3}]{{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt {\frac {23}{3}}}}}+{\sqrt[{3}]{{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt {\frac {23}{3}}}}}} {\sqrt[ {3}]{{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt {{\frac {23}{3}}}}}}+{\sqrt[ {3}]{{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt {{\frac {23}{3}}}}}} 1.324717957244746025960908854478 Plastic number, the unique real root of the cubic equation x3 = x + 1.
√2 1.414213562373095048801688724210 √2 = 2 sin 45° = 2 cos 45°
Square root of two a.k.a. Pythagoras' constant.
Ratio of diagonal to side length in a square.
Proportion between the sides of paper sizes in the ISO 216 series (originally DIN 476 series).
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {2}{3{\sqrt[{3}]{116+12{\sqrt {93}}}}}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt[{3}]{116+12{\sqrt {93}}}}} {\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {2}{3{\sqrt[{3}]{116+12{\sqrt {93}}}}}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt[{3}]{116+12{\sqrt {93}}}} 1.465571231876768026656731225220 The limit to the ratio between subsequent numbers in the binary Look-and-say sequence.
{\displaystyle {\frac {\sqrt {5+2{\sqrt {5}}}}{2}}} {\frac {\sqrt {5+2{\sqrt {5}}}}{2}} 1.538841768587626701285145288018 Altitude of a regular pentagon with side length 1.
√17 − 1
/
2
1.561552812808830274910704927987 The Triangular root of 2.
√5 + 1
/
2
1.618033988749894848204586834366 Golden ratio (φ), the larger of the two real roots of x2 = x + 1.
{\displaystyle {\frac {5}{4{\sqrt {5-2{\sqrt {5}}}}}}} {\frac {5}{4{\sqrt {5-2{\sqrt {5}}}}}} 1.720477400588966922759011977389 Area of a regular pentagon with side length 1.
√3 1.732050807568877293527446341506 √3 = 2 sin 60° = 2 cos 30°
Square root of three a.k.a. the measure of the fish.
Length of the space diagonal of a cube with edge length 1.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √2 rectangle.
Altitude of an equilateral triangle with side length 2.
Altitude of a regular hexagon with side length 1 and diagonal length 2.
{\displaystyle {\frac {1+{\sqrt[{3}]{19+3{\sqrt {33}}}}+{\sqrt[{3}]{19-3{\sqrt {33}}}}}{3}}} {\frac {1+{\sqrt[{3}]{19+3{\sqrt {33}}}}+{\sqrt[{3}]{19-3{\sqrt {33}}}}}{3}} 1.839286755214161132551852564653 The Tribonacci constant.
Used in the formula for the volume of the snub cube and properties of some of its dual polyhedra.
It satisfies the equation x + x−3 = 2.
√5 2.236067977499789696409173668731 Square root of five.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × 2 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √2 × √3 rectangle.
Length of the space diagonal of a 1 × √2 × √2 rectangular box.
√2 + 1 2.414213562373095048801688724210 Silver ratio (δS), the larger of the two real roots of x2 = 2x + 1.
Altitude of a regular octagon with side length 1.
√6 2.449489742783178098197284074706 √2 · √3 = area of a √2 × √3 rectangle.
Length of the space diagonal of a 1 × 1 × 2 rectangular box.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √5 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √2 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a square with side length √3.
3√3
/
2
2.598076113533159402911695122588 Area of a regular hexagon with side length 1.
√7 2.645751311064590590501615753639 Length of the space diagonal of a 1 × 2 × √2 rectangular box.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √6 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √3 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √2 × √5 rectangle.
√8 2.828427124746190097603377448419 2√2
Volume of a cube with edge length √2.
Length of the diagonal of a square with side length 2.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √7 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √2 × √6 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √3 × √5 rectangle.
√10 3.162277660168379331998893544433 √2 · √5 = area of a √2 × √5 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × 3 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √6 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √3 × √7 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a square with side length √5.
√11 3.316624790355399849114932736671 Length of the space diagonal of a 1 × 1 × 3 rectangular box.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √10 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √7 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 3 × √2 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √3 × √8 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √5 × √6 rectangle.
√12 3.464101615137754587054892683012 2√3
Length of the space diagonal of a cube with edge length 2.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √11 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √8 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 3 × √3 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √2 × √10 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √5 × √7 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a square with side length √6.
Transcendental numbers[edit]
Main article: Transcendental number
(−1)i = e−π = 0.0432139183...
Liouville constant: c = 0.110001000000000000000001000...
Champernowne constant: C10 = 0.12345678910111213141516...
ii = √e−π = 0.207879576...
1
/
π
= 0.318309886183790671537767526745028724068919291480 ...[4]
1
/
e
= 0.367879441171442321595523770161460867445811131031 ...[4]
Prouhet–Thue–Morse constant: τ = 0.412454033640...
log10 e = 0.434294481903251827651128918916605082294397005803 ...[4]
Omega constant: Ω = 0.5671432904097838729999686622...
Cahen's constant: c = 0.64341054629...
ln 2: 0.693147180559945309417232121458...
π
/
√18
= 0.7404... the maximum density of sphere packing in three dimensional Euclidean space according to the Kepler conjecture[5]
Gauss's constant: G = 0.8346268...
π
/
√12
= 0.9068..., the fraction of the plane covered by the densest possible circle packing[6]
ei + e−i = 2 cos 1 = 1.08060461...
π4
/
90
= ζ(4) = 1.082323...[7]
√2s: 1.559610469...[8]
log2 3: 1.584962501... (the logarithm of any positive integer to any integer base greater than 1 is either rational or transcendental)
Gaussian integral: √π = 1.772453850905516...
Komornik–Loreti constant: q = 1.787231650...
Universal parabolic constant: P2 = 2.29558714939...
Gelfond–Schneider constant: √2√2 = 2.665144143...
e = 2.718281828459045235360287471353...
π = 3.141592653589793238462643383279...
i√i = √eπ = 4.81047738...
Tau, or 2π: τ = 6.283185307179586..., The ratio of the circumference to a radius, and the number of radians in a complete circle[9][10]
Gelfond's constant: 23.14069263277925...
Ramanujan's constant: eπ√163 = 262537412640768743.99999999999925...
Suspected transcendentals[edit]
Z(1): −0.736305462867317734677899828925614672...
Heath-Brown–Moroz constant: C = 0.001317641...
Kepler–Bouwkamp constant: 0.1149420448...
MRB constant: 0.187859...
Meissel–Mertens constant: M = 0.2614972128476427837554268386086958590516...
Bernstein's constant: β = 0.2801694990...
Strongly carefree constant: 0.286747...[11]
Gauss–Kuzmin–Wirsing constant: λ1 = 0.3036630029...[12]
Hafner–Sarnak–McCurley constant: 0.3532363719...
Artin's constant: 0.3739558136...
Prime constant: ρ = 0.414682509851111660248109622...
Carefree constant: 0.428249...[13]
S(1): 0.438259147390354766076756696625152...
F(1): 0.538079506912768419136387420407556...
Stephens' constant: 0.575959...[14]
Euler–Mascheroni constant: γ = 0.577215664901532860606512090082...
Golomb–Dickman constant: λ = 0.62432998854355087099293638310083724...
Twin prime constant: C2 = 0.660161815846869573927812110014...
Copeland–Erdős constant: 0.235711131719232931374143...
Feller-Tornier constant: 0.661317...[15]
Laplace limit: ε = 0.6627434193...[1]
Taniguchi's constant: 0.678234...[16]
Continued Fraction Constant: C = 0.697774657964007982006790592551...[17]
Embree–Trefethen constant: β* = 0.70258...
Sarnak's constant: 0.723648...[18]
Landau–Ramanujan constant: 0.76422365358922066299069873125...
C(1): 0.77989340037682282947420641365...
1
/
ζ(3)
= 0.831907..., the probability that three random numbers have no common factor greater than 1.[5]
Brun's constant for prime quadruplets: B2 = 0.8705883800...
Quadratic class number constant: 0.881513...[19]
Catalan's constant: G = 0.915965594177219015054603514932384110774...
Viswanath's constant: σ(1) = 1.1319882487943...
ζ(3) = 1.202056903159594285399738161511449990764986292... , also known as Apéry's constant, known to be irrational, but not known whether or not it is transcendental.[20]
Vardi's constant: E = 1.264084735305...
Glaisher–Kinkelin constant: A = 1.28242712...
Mills' constant: A = 1.30637788386308069046...
Totient summatory constant: 1.339784...[21]
Ramanujan–Soldner constant: μ = 1.451369234883381050283968485892027449493...
Backhouse's constant: 1.456074948...
Favard constant: K1 = 1.57079633...
Erdős–Borwein constant: E = 1.606695152415291763...
Somos' quadratic recurrence constant: σ = 1.661687949633594121296...
Niven's constant: c = 1.705211...
Brun's constant: B2 = 1.902160583104...
Landau's totient constant: 1.943596...[22]
exp(−W0(−ln(3√3))) = 2.47805268028830..., the smaller solution to 3x = x3 and what, when put to the root of itself, is equal to 3 put to the root of itself.[23]
Second Feigenbaum constant: α = 2.5029...
Sierpiński's constant: K = 2.5849817595792532170658936...
Barban's constant: 2.596536...[24]
Khinchin's constant: K0 = 2.685452001...[2]
Khinchin–Lévy constant: 1.1865691104...[3]
Fransén–Robinson constant: F = 2.8077702420...
Murata's constant: 2.826419...[25]
Lévy's constant: γ = 3.275822918721811159787681882...
Reciprocal Fibonacci constant: ψ = 3.359885666243177553172011302918927179688905133731 ...
Van der Pauw's constant:
π
/
ln 2
= 4.53236014182719380962...[26]
First Feigenbaum constant: δ = 4.6692...
Numbers not known with high precision[edit]
Landau's constant: 0.4330 < B < 0.472
Bloch's constant: 0.4332 < B < 0.4719
Landau's constant: 0.5 < L < 0.544
Landau's constant: 0.5 < A < 0.7853
Grothendieck constant: 1.57 < k < 2.3
Hypercomplex numbers[edit]
Main article: Hypercomplex number
Algebraic complex numbers[edit]
Imaginary unit: i = √−1
nth roots of unity: ξkn = cos (2π
k
/
n
) + i sin (2π
k
/
n
)
Other hypercomplex numbers[edit]
The quaternions
The octonions
The sedenions
The dual numbers (with an infinitesimal)
Transfinite numbers[edit]
Main article: Transfinite number
Infinity in general: ∞
Aleph-null: ℵ0: the smallest infinite cardinal, and the cardinality of ℕ, the set of natural numbers
Aleph-one: ℵ1: the cardinality of ω1, the set of all countable ordinal numbers
Beth-one: ℶ1 the cardinality of the continuum 2ℵ0
ℭ or {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {c}}} {\mathfrak {c}}: the cardinality of the continuum 2ℵ0
omega: ω, the smallest infinite ordinal
Numbers representing measured quantities[edit]
Pair: 2 (the base of the binary numeral system)
Dozen: 12 (the base of the duodecimal numeral system)
Baker's dozen: 13
Score: 20 (the base of the vigesimal numeral system)
Gross: 144 (= 122)
Great gross: 1728 (= 123)
Numbers representing physical quantities[edit]
Avogadro constant: NA = 6.0221417930×1023 mol−1
Coulomb's constant: ke = 8.987551787368×109 N·m2/C2 (m/F)
Electronvolt: eV = 1.60217648740×10−19 J
Electron relative atomic mass: Ar(e) = 0.0005485799094323...
Fine structure constant: α = 0.007297352537650...
Gravitational constant: G = 6.67384×10−11 N·(m/kg)2
Molar mass constant: Mu = 0.001 kg/mol
Planck constant: h = 6.6260689633×10−34 J · s
Rydberg constant: R∞ = 10973731.56852773 m−1
Speed of light in vacuum: c = 299792458 m/s
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: σ = 5.670400×10−8 W · m−2 · K−4
This is a list of articles about numbers (not about numerals).
Contents [hide]
1 Rational numbers
1.1 Natural numbers
1.2 Powers of ten (scientific notation)
1.3 Integers
1.3.1 Notable integers
1.3.2 Named numbers
1.4 Prime numbers
1.5 Highly composite numbers
1.6 Perfect numbers
1.7 Cardinal numbers
1.7.1 Small numbers
1.7.2 English names for powers of 10
1.7.3 Proposed systematic names for powers of 10
1.7.3.1 Myriad system
1.7.3.2 SI-derived
1.8 Fractional numbers
2 Irrational and suspected irrational numbers
2.1 Algebraic numbers
2.2 Transcendental numbers
2.2.1 Suspected transcendentals
2.3 Numbers not known with high precision
3 Hypercomplex numbers
3.1 Algebraic complex numbers
3.2 Other hypercomplex numbers
4 Transfinite numbers
5 Numbers representing measured quantities
6 Numbers representing physical quantities
7 Numbers without specific values
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Further reading
11 External links
Rational numbers[edit]
Main article: Rational number
Natural numbers[edit]
Main article: Natural number
(Notice: In set theory and computer science, 0 is a natural number)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119
120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139
140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149
150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159
160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169
170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179
180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189
190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199
200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209
210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219
220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229
230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239
240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249
250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259
260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269
270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279
280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289
290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000
105 106 107 108 109
10100 1010100 Larger numbers
Powers of ten (scientific notation)[edit]
Main article: Orders of magnitude (numbers)
Integers[edit]
Main article: Integer
Notable integers[edit]
Other numbers that are notable for their mathematical properties or cultural meanings include:
−40, the equal point in the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.
−1, the additive inverse of unity.
0, the additive identity.
1, the multiplicative identity.
2, the base of the binary number system, used in almost all modern computers and information systems. Also notable as the only even prime number.
3, is significant in Christianity as the Trinity
4, the first composite number, also considered an "unlucky number" in modern China due to its audible similarity to the word "Death."
6, the first of the series of perfect numbers, whose proper factors sum to the number itself.
7, considered a "lucky" number in Western cultures.
8, considered a "lucky" number in Chinese culture.
9, the first odd number that is not prime nor a unit.
10, the number base for most modern counting systems.
12, the number base for some ancient counting systems and the basis for some modern measuring systems. Known as a dozen.
13, considered an "unlucky" number in Western superstition. Also known as a "Baker's Dozen"
28, the second perfect number.
42, the "answer to the ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything" in the popular science fiction work The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.
60, the number base for some ancient counting systems, such as the Babylonians', and the basis for many modern measuring systems.
86, a slang term that is used in the American popular culture as a transitive verb to mean throw out or get rid of.[1]
144, a dozen times dozen, known as a gross.
255, 28 − 1, a Mersenne number and the smallest perfect totient number that is neither a power of three nor thrice a prime; it is also the largest number that can be represented using an 8-bit unsigned integer.
496, the third perfect number.
786, regarded as sacred in the Muslim Abjad numerology.
1729, a taxicab number; the smallest positive integer that can be written as the sum of two positive cubes in two different ways; also known as the Hardy-Ramanujan number.[2]
5040, mentioned by Plato in the Laws as one of the most important numbers for the city. It is also the largest factorial (7! = 5040) that is also a highly composite number.
65535, 216 − 1, the maximum value of a 16-bit unsigned integer.
142857, the smallest base 10 cyclic number.
8675309, Jenny's Number from Tommy Tutone's song 867-5309/Jenny
2147483647, 231 − 1, the maximum value of a 32-bit signed integer using two's complement representation.
9814072356, the largest perfect power that contains no repeated digits in base ten.
9223372036854775807, 263 − 1, the maximum value of a 64-bit signed integer using two's complement representation.
Named numbers[edit]
Googol (10100) and googolplex (1010100)
Graham's number
Moser's number
Shannon number
Hardy–Ramanujan number (1729)
Skewes' number
Kaprekar's constant (6174)
Prime numbers[edit]
Main article: Prime numbers
A prime number is a positive integer which has exactly two divisors: 1 and itself.
The first 100 prime numbers are:
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71
73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113
127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173
179 181 191 193 197 199 211 223 227 229
233 239 241 251 257 263 269 271 277 281
283 293 307 311 313 317 331 337 347 349
353 359 367 373 379 383 389 397 401 409
419 421 431 433 439 443 449 457 461 463
467 479 487 491 499 503 509 521 523 541
Highly composite numbers[edit]
Main article: Highly composite number
A highly composite number (HCN) is a positive integer with more divisors than any smaller positive integer. They are often used in geometry, grouping and time measurement.
The first 20 highly composite numbers are:
1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 120, 180, 240, 360, 720, 840, 1260, 1680, 2520, 5040, 7560.
Perfect numbers[edit]
Main article: Perfect number
A perfect number is an integer that is the sum of its positive proper divisors (all divisors except itself).
The first 10 perfect numbers:
1 6
2 28
3 496
4 8 128
5 33 550 336
6 8 589 869 056
7 137 438 691 328
8 2 305 843 008 139 952 128
9 2 658 455 991 569 831 744 654 692 615 953 842 176
10 191 561 942 608 236 107 294 793 378 084 303 638 130 997 321 548 169 216
Cardinal numbers[edit]
Main article: cardinal number
In the following tables, [and] indicates that the word and is used in some dialects (such as British English), and omitted in other dialects (such as American English).
Small numbers[edit]
This table demonstrates the standard English construction of small cardinal numbers up to one hundred million—names for which all variants of English agree.
Value Name Alternate names, and names for sets of the given size
0 Zero aught, cipher, cypher, donut, duck, goose egg, love, nada, naught, nil, none, nought, nowt, null, ought, oh, squat, zed, zilch, zip, zippo
1 One ace, individual, single, singleton, unary, unit, unity
2 Two binary, brace, couple, couplet, distich, deuce, double, doubleton, duad, duality, duet, duo, dyad, pair, span, twain, twin, twosome, yoke
3 Three deuce-ace, leash, set, tercet, ternary, ternion, terzetto, threesome, tierce, trey, triad, trine, trinity, trio, triplet, troika, hat-trick
4 Four foursome, quadruplet, quatern, quaternary, quaternity, quartet, tetrad
5 Five cinque, fin, fivesome, pentad, quint, quintet, quintuplet
6 Six half dozen, hexad, sestet, sextet, sextuplet, sise
7 Seven heptad, septet, septuple
8 Eight octad, octave, octet, octonary, octuplet, ogdoad
9 Nine ennead
10 Ten deca, decade
11 Eleven onze, ounze, ounce, banker's dozen
12 Twelve dozen
13 Thirteen baker's dozen, long dozen[3]
14 Fourteen
15 Fifteen
16 Sixteen
17 Seventeen
18 Eighteen
19 Nineteen
20 Twenty score
21 Twenty-one long score[3]
22 Twenty-two Deuce-deuce
23 Twenty-three
24 Twenty-four two dozen
25 Twenty-five
26 Twenty-six
27 Twenty-seven
28 Twenty-eight
29 Twenty-nine
30 Thirty
31 Thirty-one
32 Thirty-two
40 Forty two-score
50 Fifty half-century
60 Sixty three-score
70 Seventy three-score and ten
80 Eighty four-score
87 Eighty-seven four-score and seven
90 Ninety four-score and ten
100 One hundred centred, century, ton, short hundred
101 One hundred [and] one
110 One hundred [and] ten
111 One hundred [and] eleven
120 One hundred [and] twenty long hundred,[3] great hundred, (obsolete) hundred
121 One hundred [and] twenty-one
144 One hundred [and] forty-four gross, dozen dozen, small gross
200 Two hundred
300 Three hundred
400 Four hundred
500 Five hundred
600 Six hundred
666 Six hundred [and] sixty-six
700 Seven hundred
777 Seven hundred [and] seventy-seven Number of Luck
800 Eight hundred
900 Nine hundred
1000 One thousand chiliad, grand, G, thou, yard, kilo, k, millennium
1001 One thousand [and] one
1010 One thousand [and] ten
1011 One thousand [and] eleven
1024 One thousand [and] twenty-four kibi or kilo in computing, see binary prefix (kilo is shortened to K, Kibi to Ki)
1100 One thousand one hundred Eleven hundred
1101 One thousand one hundred [and] one
1728 One thousand seven hundred [and] twenty-eight great gross, long gross, dozen gross
2000 Two thousand
3000 Three thousand
10000 Ten thousand myriad, wan (China)
100000 One hundred thousand lakh
500000 Five hundred thousand crore (Iranian)
1000000 One million Mega, meg, mil, (often shortened to M)
1048576 One million forty-eight thousand five hundred [and] seventy-six Mibi or Mega in computing, see binary prefix (Mega is shortened to M, Mibi to Mi)
10000000 Ten million crore (Indian)(Pakistan)
100000000 One hundred million yi (China)
English names for powers of 10[edit]
This table compares the English names of cardinal numbers according to various American, British, and Continental European conventions. See English numerals or names of large numbers for more information on naming numbers.
Short scale Long scale Power
Value American British
(Nicolas Chuquet) Continental European
(Jacques Peletier du Mans) of a thousand of a million
100 One 1000−1+1 10000000
101 Ten
102 Hundred
103 Thousand 10000+1 10000000.5
106 Million 10001+1 10000001
109 Billion Thousand million Milliard 10002+1 10000001.5
1012 Trillion Billion 10003+1 10000002
1015 Quadrillion Thousand billion Billiard 10004+1 10000002.5
1018 Quintillion Trillion 10005+1 10000003
1021 Sextillion Thousand trillion Trilliard 10006+1 10000003.5
1024 Septillion Quadrillion 10007+1 10000004
1027 Octillion Thousand quadrillion Quadrilliard 10008+1 10000004.5
1030 Nonillion Quintillion 10009+1 10000005
1033 Decillion Thousand quintillion Quintilliard 100010+1 10000005.5
1036 Undecillion Sextillion 100011+1 10000006
1039 Duodecillion Thousand sextillion Sextilliard 100012+1 10000006.5
1042 Tredecillion Septillion 100013+1 10000007
1045 Quattuordecillion Thousand septillion Septilliard 100014+1 10000007.5
1048 Quindecillion Octillion 100015+1 10000008
1051 Sexdecillion Thousand octillion Octilliard 100016+1 10000008.5
1054 Septendecillion Nonillion 100017+1 10000009
1057 Octodecillion Thousand nonillion Nonilliard 100018+1 10000009.5
1060 Novemdecillion Decillion 100019+1 100000010
1063 Vigintillion Thousand decillion Decilliard 100020+1 100000010.5
1066 Unvigintillion Undecillion 100021+1 100000011
1069 Duovigintillion Thousand undecillion Undecilliard 100022+1 100000011.5
1072 Trevigintillion Duodecillion 100023+1 100000012
1075 Quattuorvigintillion Thousand duodecillion Duodecilliard 100024+1 100000012.5
1078 Quinvigintillion Tredecillion 100025+1 100000013
1081 Sexvigintillion Thousand tredecillion Tredecilliard 100026+1 100000013.5
1084 Septenvigintillion Quattuordecillion 100027+1 100000014
1087 Octavigintillion Thousand quattuordecillion Quattuordecilliard 100028+1 100000014.5
1090 Novemvigintillion Quindecillion 100029+1 100000015
1093 Trigintillion Thousand quindecillion Quindecilliard 100030+1 100000015.5
... ... ... ... ...
10120 Novemtrigintillion Vigintillion 100039+1 100000020
10123 Quadragintillion Thousand vigintillion Vigintilliard 100040+1 100000020.5
... ... ... ... ...
10153 Quinquagintillion Thousand quinvigintillion Quinvigintilliard 100050+1 100000025.5
... ... ... ... ...
10180 Novemquinquagintillion Trigintillion 100059+1 100000030
10183 Sexagintillion Thousand trigintillion Trigintilliard 100060+1 100000030.5
... ... ... ... ...
10213 Septuagintillion Thousand quintrigintillion Quintrigintilliard 100070+1 100000035.5
... ... ... ... ...
10240 Novemseptuagintillion Quadragintillion 100079+1 100000040
10243 Octogintillion Thousand quadragintillion Quadragintilliard 100080+1 100000040.5
... ... ... ... ...
10273 Nonagintillion Thousand quinquadragintillion Quinquadragintilliard 100090+1 100000045.5
... ... ... ... ...
10300 Novemnonagintillion Quinquagintillion 100099+1 100000050
10303 Centillion Thousand quinquagintillion Quinquagintilliard 1000100+1 100000050.5
... ... ... ... ...
10360 Cennovemdecillion Sexagintillion 1000119+1 100000060
10420 Cennovemtrigintillion Septuagintillion 1000139+1 100000070
10480 Cennovemquinquagintillion Octogintillion 1000159+1 100000080
10540 Cennovemseptuagintillion Nonagintillion 1000179+1 100000090
10600 Cennovemnonagintillion Centillion 1000199+1 1000000100
10603 Ducentillion Thousand centillion Centilliard 1000200+1 1000000100.5
There is no consistent and widely accepted way to extend cardinals beyond centillion (centilliard).
Proposed systematic names for powers of 10[edit]
Myriad system[edit]
Proposed by Donald E. Knuth:
Value Name Notation
100 One 1
101 Ten 10
102 Hundred 100
103 Ten hundred 1000
104 Myriad 1,0000
105 Ten myriad 10,0000
106 Hundred myriad 100,0000
107 Ten hundred myriad 1000,0000
108 Myllion 1;0000,0000
1012 Myriad myllion 1,0000;0000,0000
1016 Byllion 1:0000,0000;0000,0000
1024 Myllion byllion 1;0000,0000:0000,0000;0000,0000
1032 Tryllion 1'0000,0000;0000,0000:0000,0000;0000,0000
1064 Quadryllion 1"0000,0000;0000,0000:0000,0000;0000,0000'0000,000 0;0000,0000:0000,0000;0000,0000
10128 Quintyllion
10256 Sextyllion
10512 Septyllion
101,024 Octyllion
102,048 Nonyllion
104,096 Decyllion
108,192 Undecyllion
1016,384 Duodecyllion
1032,768 Tredecyllion
1065,536 Quattuordecyllion
10131,072 Quindecyllion
10262,144 Sexdecyllion
10524,288 Septendecyllion
101,048,576 Octodecyllion
102,097,152 Novemdecyllion
10222 Vigintyllion
10232 Trigintyllion
10242 Quadragintyllion
10252 Quinquagintyllion
10262 Sexagintyllion
10272 Septuagintyllion
10282 Octogintyllion
10292 Nonagintyllion
102102 Centyllion
1021,002 Millyllion
10210,002 Myryllion
SI-derived[edit]
Value 1000m SI prefix Name Binary prefix 1024m=210m Value
1000 10001 k Kilo Ki 10241 1 024
1000000 10002 M Mega Mi 10242 1 048 576
1000000000 10003 G Giga Gi 10243 1 073 741 824
1000000000000 10004 T Tera Ti 10244 1 099 511 627 776
1000000000000000 10005 P Peta Pi 10245 1 125 899 906 842 624
1000000000000000000 10006 E Exa Ei 10246 1 152 921 504 606 846 976
1000000000000000000000 10007 Z Zetta Zi 10247 1 180 591 620 717 411 303 424
1000000000000000000000000 10008 Y Yotta Yi 10248 1 208 925 819 614 629 174 706 176
Fractional numbers[edit]
Main article: Fraction (mathematics)
This is a table of English names for non-negative rational numbers less than or equal to 1. It also lists alternative names, but there is no widespread convention for the names of extremely small positive numbers.
Keep in mind that rational numbers like 0.12 can be represented in infinitely many ways, e.g. zero-point-one-two (0.12), twelve percent (12%), three twenty-fifths (
3
/
25
), nine seventy-fifths (
9
/
75
), six fiftieths (
6
/
50
), twelve hundredths (
12
/
100
, twenty-four two-hundredths (
24
/
200
), etc.
Value Fraction Common names Alternative names
1
1
/
1
One 0.999..., Unity
0.9
9
/
10
Nine tenths, [zero] point nine
0.8
4
/
5
Four fifths, eight tenths, [zero] point eight
0.7
7
/
10
Seven tenths, [zero] point seven
0.6
3
/
5
Three fifths, six tenths, [zero] point six
0.5
1
/
2
One half, five tenths, [zero] point five
0.4
2
/
5
Two fifths, four tenths, [zero] point four
0.333333...
1
/
3
One third
0.3
3
/
10
Three tenths, [zero] point three
0.25
1
/
4
One quarter, one fourth, twenty-five hundredths, [zero] point two five
0.2
1
/
5
One fifth, two tenths, [zero] point two
0.166666...
1
/
6
One sixth
0.142857142857...
1
/
7
One seventh
0.125
1
/
8
One eighth, one-hundred-[and-]twenty-five thousandths, [zero] point one two five
0.111111...
1
/
9
One ninth
0.1
1
/
10
One tenth, [zero] point one One perdecime, one perdime
0.090909...
1
/
11
One eleventh
0.09
9
/
100
Nine hundredths, [zero] point zero nine
0.083333...
1
/
12
One twelfth
0.08
2
/
25
Two twenty-fifths, eight hundredths, [zero] point zero eight
0.0625
1
/
16
One sixteenth, six-hundred-[and-]twenty-five ten-thousandths, [zero] point zero six two five
0.05
1
/
20
One twentieth, [zero] point zero five
0.047619047619...
1
/
21
One twenty-first
0.045454545...
1
/
22
One twenty-second
0.043478260869565217391304347...
1
/
23
One twenty-third
0.033333...
1
/
30
One thirtieth
0.016666...
1
/
60
One sixtieth One minute
0.012345679012345679...
1
/
81
One eighty-first
0.01
1
/
100
One hundredth, [zero] point zero one One percent
0.001
1
/
1000
One thousandth, [zero] point zero zero one One permille
0.000277777...
1
/
3600
One thirty-six hundredth One second
0.0001
1
/
10000
One ten-thousandth, [zero] point zero zero zero one One myriadth, one permyria, one permyriad, one basis point
0.00001
1
/
100000
One hundred-thousandth One lakhth, one perlakh
0.000001
1
/
1000000
One millionth One perion, one ppm
0.0000001
1
/
10000000
One ten-millionth One crorth, one percrore
0.00000001
1
/
100000000
One hundred-millionth One awkth, one perawk
0.000000001
1
/
1000000000
One billionth (in some dialects) One ppb
0
0
/
1
Zero Nil
Irrational and suspected irrational numbers[edit]
Main article: irrational number
Algebraic numbers[edit]
Main article: Algebraic number
Expression Approximate value Notes
√3
/
4
0.433012701892219323381861585376 Area of an equilateral triangle with side length 1.
√5 − 1
/
2
0.618033988749894848204586834366 Golden ratio conjugate Φ, reciprocal of and one less than the golden ratio.
√3
/
2
0.866025403784438646763723170753 Height of an equilateral triangle with side length 1.
12√2 1.059463094359295264561825294946 Twelfth root of two.
Proportion between the frequencies of adjacent semitones in the equal temperament scale.
3√2
/
4
1.060660171779821286601266543157 The size of the cube that satisfies Prince Rupert's cube.
3√2 1.259921049894873164767210607278 Cube root of two.
Length of the edge of a cube with volume two. See doubling the cube for the significance of this number.
— 1.303577269034296391257099112153 Conway's constant, defined as the unique positive real root of a certain polynomial of degree 71.
{\displaystyle {\sqrt[{3}]{{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt {\frac {23}{3}}}}}+{\sqrt[{3}]{{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt {\frac {23}{3}}}}}} {\sqrt[ {3}]{{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt {{\frac {23}{3}}}}}}+{\sqrt[ {3}]{{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt {{\frac {23}{3}}}}}} 1.324717957244746025960908854478 Plastic number, the unique real root of the cubic equation x3 = x + 1.
√2 1.414213562373095048801688724210 √2 = 2 sin 45° = 2 cos 45°
Square root of two a.k.a. Pythagoras' constant.
Ratio of diagonal to side length in a square.
Proportion between the sides of paper sizes in the ISO 216 series (originally DIN 476 series).
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {2}{3{\sqrt[{3}]{116+12{\sqrt {93}}}}}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt[{3}]{116+12{\sqrt {93}}}}} {\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {2}{3{\sqrt[{3}]{116+12{\sqrt {93}}}}}}+{\frac {1}{6}}{\sqrt[{3}]{116+12{\sqrt {93}}}} 1.465571231876768026656731225220 The limit to the ratio between subsequent numbers in the binary Look-and-say sequence.
{\displaystyle {\frac {\sqrt {5+2{\sqrt {5}}}}{2}}} {\frac {\sqrt {5+2{\sqrt {5}}}}{2}} 1.538841768587626701285145288018 Altitude of a regular pentagon with side length 1.
√17 − 1
/
2
1.561552812808830274910704927987 The Triangular root of 2.
√5 + 1
/
2
1.618033988749894848204586834366 Golden ratio (φ), the larger of the two real roots of x2 = x + 1.
{\displaystyle {\frac {5}{4{\sqrt {5-2{\sqrt {5}}}}}}} {\frac {5}{4{\sqrt {5-2{\sqrt {5}}}}}} 1.720477400588966922759011977389 Area of a regular pentagon with side length 1.
√3 1.732050807568877293527446341506 √3 = 2 sin 60° = 2 cos 30°
Square root of three a.k.a. the measure of the fish.
Length of the space diagonal of a cube with edge length 1.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √2 rectangle.
Altitude of an equilateral triangle with side length 2.
Altitude of a regular hexagon with side length 1 and diagonal length 2.
{\displaystyle {\frac {1+{\sqrt[{3}]{19+3{\sqrt {33}}}}+{\sqrt[{3}]{19-3{\sqrt {33}}}}}{3}}} {\frac {1+{\sqrt[{3}]{19+3{\sqrt {33}}}}+{\sqrt[{3}]{19-3{\sqrt {33}}}}}{3}} 1.839286755214161132551852564653 The Tribonacci constant.
Used in the formula for the volume of the snub cube and properties of some of its dual polyhedra.
It satisfies the equation x + x−3 = 2.
√5 2.236067977499789696409173668731 Square root of five.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × 2 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √2 × √3 rectangle.
Length of the space diagonal of a 1 × √2 × √2 rectangular box.
√2 + 1 2.414213562373095048801688724210 Silver ratio (δS), the larger of the two real roots of x2 = 2x + 1.
Altitude of a regular octagon with side length 1.
√6 2.449489742783178098197284074706 √2 · √3 = area of a √2 × √3 rectangle.
Length of the space diagonal of a 1 × 1 × 2 rectangular box.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √5 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √2 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a square with side length √3.
3√3
/
2
2.598076113533159402911695122588 Area of a regular hexagon with side length 1.
√7 2.645751311064590590501615753639 Length of the space diagonal of a 1 × 2 × √2 rectangular box.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √6 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √3 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √2 × √5 rectangle.
√8 2.828427124746190097603377448419 2√2
Volume of a cube with edge length √2.
Length of the diagonal of a square with side length 2.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √7 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √2 × √6 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √3 × √5 rectangle.
√10 3.162277660168379331998893544433 √2 · √5 = area of a √2 × √5 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × 3 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √6 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √3 × √7 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a square with side length √5.
√11 3.316624790355399849114932736671 Length of the space diagonal of a 1 × 1 × 3 rectangular box.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √10 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √7 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 3 × √2 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √3 × √8 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √5 × √6 rectangle.
√12 3.464101615137754587054892683012 2√3
Length of the space diagonal of a cube with edge length 2.
Length of the diagonal of a 1 × √11 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 2 × √8 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a 3 × √3 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √2 × √10 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a √5 × √7 rectangle.
Length of the diagonal of a square with side length √6.
Transcendental numbers[edit]
Main article: Transcendental number
(−1)i = e−π = 0.0432139183...
Liouville constant: c = 0.110001000000000000000001000...
Champernowne constant: C10 = 0.12345678910111213141516...
ii = √e−π = 0.207879576...
1
/
π
= 0.318309886183790671537767526745028724068919291480 ...[4]
1
/
e
= 0.367879441171442321595523770161460867445811131031 ...[4]
Prouhet–Thue–Morse constant: τ = 0.412454033640...
log10 e = 0.434294481903251827651128918916605082294397005803 ...[4]
Omega constant: Ω = 0.5671432904097838729999686622...
Cahen's constant: c = 0.64341054629...
ln 2: 0.693147180559945309417232121458...
π
/
√18
= 0.7404... the maximum density of sphere packing in three dimensional Euclidean space according to the Kepler conjecture[5]
Gauss's constant: G = 0.8346268...
π
/
√12
= 0.9068..., the fraction of the plane covered by the densest possible circle packing[6]
ei + e−i = 2 cos 1 = 1.08060461...
π4
/
90
= ζ(4) = 1.082323...[7]
√2s: 1.559610469...[8]
log2 3: 1.584962501... (the logarithm of any positive integer to any integer base greater than 1 is either rational or transcendental)
Gaussian integral: √π = 1.772453850905516...
Komornik–Loreti constant: q = 1.787231650...
Universal parabolic constant: P2 = 2.29558714939...
Gelfond–Schneider constant: √2√2 = 2.665144143...
e = 2.718281828459045235360287471353...
π = 3.141592653589793238462643383279...
i√i = √eπ = 4.81047738...
Tau, or 2π: τ = 6.283185307179586..., The ratio of the circumference to a radius, and the number of radians in a complete circle[9][10]
Gelfond's constant: 23.14069263277925...
Ramanujan's constant: eπ√163 = 262537412640768743.99999999999925...
Suspected transcendentals[edit]
Z(1): −0.736305462867317734677899828925614672...
Heath-Brown–Moroz constant: C = 0.001317641...
Kepler–Bouwkamp constant: 0.1149420448...
MRB constant: 0.187859...
Meissel–Mertens constant: M = 0.2614972128476427837554268386086958590516...
Bernstein's constant: β = 0.2801694990...
Strongly carefree constant: 0.286747...[11]
Gauss–Kuzmin–Wirsing constant: λ1 = 0.3036630029...[12]
Hafner–Sarnak–McCurley constant: 0.3532363719...
Artin's constant: 0.3739558136...
Prime constant: ρ = 0.414682509851111660248109622...
Carefree constant: 0.428249...[13]
S(1): 0.438259147390354766076756696625152...
F(1): 0.538079506912768419136387420407556...
Stephens' constant: 0.575959...[14]
Euler–Mascheroni constant: γ = 0.577215664901532860606512090082...
Golomb–Dickman constant: λ = 0.62432998854355087099293638310083724...
Twin prime constant: C2 = 0.660161815846869573927812110014...
Copeland–Erdős constant: 0.235711131719232931374143...
Feller-Tornier constant: 0.661317...[15]
Laplace limit: ε = 0.6627434193...[1]
Taniguchi's constant: 0.678234...[16]
Continued Fraction Constant: C = 0.697774657964007982006790592551...[17]
Embree–Trefethen constant: β* = 0.70258...
Sarnak's constant: 0.723648...[18]
Landau–Ramanujan constant: 0.76422365358922066299069873125...
C(1): 0.77989340037682282947420641365...
1
/
ζ(3)
= 0.831907..., the probability that three random numbers have no common factor greater than 1.[5]
Brun's constant for prime quadruplets: B2 = 0.8705883800...
Quadratic class number constant: 0.881513...[19]
Catalan's constant: G = 0.915965594177219015054603514932384110774...
Viswanath's constant: σ(1) = 1.1319882487943...
ζ(3) = 1.202056903159594285399738161511449990764986292... , also known as Apéry's constant, known to be irrational, but not known whether or not it is transcendental.[20]
Vardi's constant: E = 1.264084735305...
Glaisher–Kinkelin constant: A = 1.28242712...
Mills' constant: A = 1.30637788386308069046...
Totient summatory constant: 1.339784...[21]
Ramanujan–Soldner constant: μ = 1.451369234883381050283968485892027449493...
Backhouse's constant: 1.456074948...
Favard constant: K1 = 1.57079633...
Erdős–Borwein constant: E = 1.606695152415291763...
Somos' quadratic recurrence constant: σ = 1.661687949633594121296...
Niven's constant: c = 1.705211...
Brun's constant: B2 = 1.902160583104...
Landau's totient constant: 1.943596...[22]
exp(−W0(−ln(3√3))) = 2.47805268028830..., the smaller solution to 3x = x3 and what, when put to the root of itself, is equal to 3 put to the root of itself.[23]
Second Feigenbaum constant: α = 2.5029...
Sierpiński's constant: K = 2.5849817595792532170658936...
Barban's constant: 2.596536...[24]
Khinchin's constant: K0 = 2.685452001...[2]
Khinchin–Lévy constant: 1.1865691104...[3]
Fransén–Robinson constant: F = 2.8077702420...
Murata's constant: 2.826419...[25]
Lévy's constant: γ = 3.275822918721811159787681882...
Reciprocal Fibonacci constant: ψ = 3.359885666243177553172011302918927179688905133731 ...
Van der Pauw's constant:
π
/
ln 2
= 4.53236014182719380962...[26]
First Feigenbaum constant: δ = 4.6692...
Numbers not known with high precision[edit]
Landau's constant: 0.4330 < B < 0.472
Bloch's constant: 0.4332 < B < 0.4719
Landau's constant: 0.5 < L < 0.544
Landau's constant: 0.5 < A < 0.7853
Grothendieck constant: 1.57 < k < 2.3
Hypercomplex numbers[edit]
Main article: Hypercomplex number
Algebraic complex numbers[edit]
Imaginary unit: i = √−1
nth roots of unity: ξkn = cos (2π
k
/
n
) + i sin (2π
k
/
n
)
Other hypercomplex numbers[edit]
The quaternions
The octonions
The sedenions
The dual numbers (with an infinitesimal)
Transfinite numbers[edit]
Main article: Transfinite number
Infinity in general: ∞
Aleph-null: ℵ0: the smallest infinite cardinal, and the cardinality of ℕ, the set of natural numbers
Aleph-one: ℵ1: the cardinality of ω1, the set of all countable ordinal numbers
Beth-one: ℶ1 the cardinality of the continuum 2ℵ0
ℭ or {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {c}}} {\mathfrak {c}}: the cardinality of the continuum 2ℵ0
omega: ω, the smallest infinite ordinal
Numbers representing measured quantities[edit]
Pair: 2 (the base of the binary numeral system)
Dozen: 12 (the base of the duodecimal numeral system)
Baker's dozen: 13
Score: 20 (the base of the vigesimal numeral system)
Gross: 144 (= 122)
Great gross: 1728 (= 123)
Numbers representing physical quantities[edit]
Avogadro constant: NA = 6.0221417930×1023 mol−1
Coulomb's constant: ke = 8.987551787368×109 N·m2/C2 (m/F)
Electronvolt: eV = 1.60217648740×10−19 J
Electron relative atomic mass: Ar(e) = 0.0005485799094323...
Fine structure constant: α = 0.007297352537650...
Gravitational constant: G = 6.67384×10−11 N·(m/kg)2
Molar mass constant: Mu = 0.001 kg/mol
Planck constant: h = 6.6260689633×10−34 J · s
Rydberg constant: R∞ = 10973731.56852773 m−1
Speed of light in vacuum: c = 299792458 m/s
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: σ = 5.670400×10−8 W · m−2 · K−4
"do it again and i'll insert my giant watermelon dick into your cornhole" ~ Smaguris
